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	<title>Vox Internet - Programme de recherche soutenu par l'ANR</title>
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	<item>
		<title>L'Internet des Objets : quels enjeux pour les Europ&#233;ens ? </title>
		<link>http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?article255</link>
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		<dc:date>2008-11-07T18:33:51Z</dc:date>
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<category domain="http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?rubrique14">L'Internet des objets : communication et identit&#233;s</category>

		<dc:subject>Article scientifique</dc:subject>

		<description>&#192; l'occasion de la conf&#233;rence europ&#233;enne sur &#171; l'internet du futur &#187;, qui s'est tenue &#224; Nice les 6 et 7 octobre 2008 (voir le site www.internet2008.eu), une &#233;tude sur &#171; l'internet des objets &#187; (voir document en pi&#232;ce jointe) a &#233;t&#233; r&#233;alis&#233;e conjointement par Pierre-Jean Benghozi et Sylvain Bureau (P&#244;le de recherche en Economie et Gestion de l'Ecole Polytechnique) et Fran&#231;oise Massit-Foll&#233;a (programme Vox Internet II). &lt;br /&gt;Appuy&#233;e sur de nombreux rapports de (...)


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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&#192; l'occasion de la conf&#233;rence europ&#233;enne sur &#171; l'internet du futur &#187;, qui s'est tenue &#224; Nice les &lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;6 et 7 octobre 2008&lt;/strong&gt; (voir le site &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.internet2008.eu&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;www.internet2008.eu&lt;/a&gt;), une &#233;tude sur &#171; l'internet des objets &#187; (voir document en pi&#232;ce jointe) a &#233;t&#233; r&#233;alis&#233;e conjointement par &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Pierre-Jean Benghozi&lt;/i&gt; et &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Sylvain Bureau&lt;/i&gt; (P&#244;le de recherche en Economie et Gestion de l'Ecole Polytechnique) et &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Fran&#231;oise Massit-Foll&#233;a&lt;/i&gt; (programme Vox Internet II).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Appuy&#233;e sur de nombreux rapports de recherche plus ou moins prospectifs et sur l'observation des innovations d'ores et d&#233;j&#224; engag&#233;es, cette &#233;tude situe dans le contexte europ&#233;en les enjeux techniques, &#233;conomiques et socio-politiques d'une v&#233;ritable mutation de l'internet.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Pour attendue et programm&#233;e qu'elle soit, cette perspective est aujourd'hui empreinte de nombreuses incertitudes. Il s'agissait d'en &#171; mettre &#224; plat &#187; les principales composantes et d'identifier les questions-cl&#233;s.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Les &#233;l&#233;ments d'analyse et les premi&#232;res conclusions se sont av&#233;r&#233;s en phase avec le contenu des d&#233;bats de la conf&#233;rence de Nice (cf &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.org/spip.php?article256&amp;lang=fr&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;le discours introductif de Viviane Reding, Commissaire europ&#233;en&lt;/a&gt;). Le travail de r&#233;flexion scientifique est appel&#233; &#224; se poursuivre dans les mois qui viennent.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Les commentaires des lecteurs seront les bienvenus.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;a rel=&quot;license&quot; href=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/fr/&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;Creative Commons License&quot; style='height:31px;width:88px;border-width:0' src=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L88xH31/88x31png-8148146-a4706.png&quot; width='88' height='31' class=' format_png' /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span xmlns:dc=&quot;http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/&quot; href=&quot;http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text&quot; property=&quot;dc:title&quot; rel=&quot;dc:type&quot;&gt;Etude sur l'internet des Objets&lt;/span&gt; by &lt;a xmlns:cc=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/ns#&quot; href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.org/index.php&quot; Bas&#233;(e) sur une oeuvre &#224;property=&quot;cc:attributionName&quot; rel=&quot;cc:attributionURL&quot;&gt; Fran&#231;oise Massit-Foll&#233;a ; Pierre-Jean Benghozi ; Sylvain Bureau&lt;/a&gt; est mis &#224; disposition selon les termes de la &lt;a rel=&quot;license&quot; href=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/fr/&quot;&gt;licence Creative Commons Paternit&#233;-Pas d'Utilisation Commerciale-Pas de Modification 2.0 France&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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		<title>The Internet of Things : What Challenges for Europe ?</title>
		<link>http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?article257</link>
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		<dc:date>2008-11-07T18:29:18Z</dc:date>
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		<dc:language>en</dc:language>
		

<category domain="http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?rubrique14">L'Internet des objets : communication et identit&#233;s</category>

		<dc:subject>Article scientifique</dc:subject>

		<description>Before the European conference on the &#171; Future Internet &#187; that took place in Nice on October 6-7, a Report studying &#171; The Internet of Things &#187; (full texte is available in document section) was produced by Pierre-Jean Benghozi and Sylvain Bureau (P&#244;le de recherche en Economie et Gestion de l'Ecole Polytechnique) together with Fran&#231;oise Massit-Foll&#233;a (Vox Internet II). &lt;br /&gt;Based on a large number of previous prospective reports and on the observation of the first implementations, this (...)


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&lt;a href="http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?mot21" rel="tag"&gt;Article scientifique&lt;/a&gt;

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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Before the European conference on the &#171; Future Internet &#187; that took place in Nice on &lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;October 6-7&lt;/strong&gt;, a Report studying &#171; &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The Internet of Things&lt;/i&gt; &#187; (full texte is available in document section) was produced by &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Pierre-Jean Benghozi&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Sylvain Bureau&lt;/i&gt; (P&#244;le de recherche en Economie et Gestion de l'Ecole Polytechnique) together with &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Fran&#231;oise Massit-Foll&#233;a&lt;/i&gt; (Vox Internet II).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Based on a large number of previous prospective reports and on the observation of the first implementations, this report relates to the European context the technical, economical and socio-political challenges of the new Internet to come.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The Future Internet is on its way, but a lot of uncertainty is weighing. The Report tried to lay down the main characteristics of this move and to identify the key-issues.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The analyses and the first conclusions proved to be congruent with the Conference debates (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.org/spip.php?article256&amp;lang=fr&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;see the opening speech of Viviane Reding, European Commissioner&lt;/a&gt;). The scientific work is expected to go on for the next months.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Comments are welcome.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;a rel=&quot;license&quot; href=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/fr/&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;Creative Commons License&quot; style='height:31px;width:88px;border-width:0' src=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L88xH31/88x31png-8148146-a4706.png&quot; width='88' height='31' class=' format_png' /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span xmlns:dc=&quot;http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/&quot; href=&quot;http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text&quot; property=&quot;dc:title&quot; rel=&quot;dc:type&quot;&gt;The Internet of Things : What Challenges for Europe ?&lt;/span&gt; by &lt;a xmlns:cc=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/ns#&quot; href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.org/index.php?lang=en&quot; property=&quot;cc:attributionName&quot; rel=&quot;cc:attributionURL&quot;&gt;Fran&#231;oise Massit-Foll&#233;a; Pierre-Jean Benghozi; Sylvain Bureau&lt;/a&gt; is licensed under a &lt;a rel=&quot;license&quot; href=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/fr/&quot;&gt;Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial-No Derivative Works 2.0 France License&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;Based on a work at &lt;a xmlns:dc=&quot;http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/&quot; href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.org/IMG/pdf/IoT.english.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;dc:source&quot;&gt;www.voxinternet.org&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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	<item>
		<title>Gestion des identit&#233;s sur Internet : de grandes man&#339;uvres en perspective</title>
		<link>http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?article209</link>
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		<dc:date>2008-03-03T13:05:00Z</dc:date>
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		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		

<category domain="http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?rubrique14">L'Internet des objets : communication et identit&#233;s</category>

		<dc:subject>Article scientifique</dc:subject>

		<description>Tandis que les adresses IP tendent de plus en plus &#224; &#234;tre consid&#233;r&#233;es comme des &#171; donn&#233;es personnelles &#187; parce que pouvant servir &#224; identifier des utilisateurs, un nombre croissant d'acteurs s'interrogent sur les solutions qui pourraient &#234;tre mises en place pour permettre &#224; ces m&#234;mes utilisateurs de g&#233;rer au mieux des identit&#233;s de plus en plus multiples, et en quelque sorte de plus en plus contextuelles. Chaque internaute dispose &#224; pr&#233;sent d'autant d'identit&#233;s (...)

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&lt;a href="http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?mot21" rel="tag"&gt;Article scientifique&lt;/a&gt;

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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Tandis que les adresses IP tendent de plus en plus &#224; &#234;tre consid&#233;r&#233;es comme des &#171; donn&#233;es personnelles &#187; parce que pouvant servir &#224; identifier des utilisateurs [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb2-1&quot; name=&quot;nh2-1&quot; id=&quot;nh2-1&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[1] IP Addresses and Personally Identifiable Information' &gt;1&lt;/a&gt;], un nombre croissant d'acteurs s'interrogent sur les solutions qui pourraient &#234;tre mises en place pour permettre &#224; ces m&#234;mes utilisateurs de g&#233;rer au mieux des identit&#233;s de plus en plus multiples, et en quelque sorte de plus en plus contextuelles. Chaque internaute dispose &#224; pr&#233;sent d'autant d'identit&#233;s qu'il le souhaite, pouvant cr&#233;er des pseudonymes, des alias, des avatars et disposer de diverses lignes t&#233;l&#233;phoniques, mobiles ou non, et d'adresses de messagerie &#233;lectronique &#224; foison. Le seul probl&#232;me, c'est qu'il devient difficile de s'y retrouver, chaque &#171; identit&#233; contextuelle &#187; &#233;tant soumise &#224; la r&#232;gle in&#233;vitable du login et mot de passe.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;D'o&#249; l'&#233;mergence de syst&#232;mes se voulant f&#233;d&#233;rateurs, proposant &#224; l'utilisateur de se cr&#233;er une &#171; m&#233;ta-identit&#233; &#187; qui serait utilis&#233;e dans tous les autres contextes sans perte d'anonymat. Du moins dans les contextes reconnaissant cette m&#233;ta-identit&#233; virtuelle, et c'est l&#224; que se portent actuellement les enjeux : atteindre une taille critique permettant &#224; la fois de &#171; s'imposer &#187; aux internautes tout en leur facilitant r&#233;ellement la vie. Un article jug&#233; particuli&#232;rement pertinent par des experts de ce sujet a &#233;t&#233; publi&#233; ce mois-ci sur OpenID, l'un de ces syst&#232;mes &#233;mergents [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb2-2&quot; name=&quot;nh2-2&quot; id=&quot;nh2-2&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[2] Comment OpenID veut s&amp;#39;imposer comme standard de gestion de (...)' &gt;2&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;hr /&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_notes'&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh2-1&quot; name=&quot;nb2-1&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 2-1&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.circleid.com/posts/82225_ip_addresses_personally_identifiable_information/&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;IP Addresses and Personally Identifiable Information&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh2-2&quot; name=&quot;nb2-2&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 2-2&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.zdnet.fr/actualites/internet/0,39020774,39378542,00.htm?xtor=EPR-100&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;Comment OpenID veut s'imposer comme standard de gestion de l'identit&#233; en ligne&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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	<item>
		<title>Technologies of the Common: Toward an Ethics of Collaborative Constitution</title>
		<link>http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?article173</link>
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		<dc:date>2007-10-16T22:00:00Z</dc:date>
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		<dc:language>en</dc:language>
		

<category domain="http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?rubrique14">L'Internet des objets : communication et identit&#233;s</category>

		<dc:subject>Article scientifique</dc:subject>

		<description>The arrival and generalization of social software - often subsumed under the misnomer Web 2.0, conveniently (and in true new economy manner) obscuring decades of social innovation - was greeted with a wave of economic enthusiasm (new markets), as well as a corresponding sense of political possibility regarding remedies to the 'democracy deficit' of institutions of governance (e-democracy, e-inclusion, m2m/p2p as new model for public sphere communication). In the following, I will (...)

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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The arrival and generalization of social software - often subsumed under the misnomer Web 2.0, conveniently (and in true new economy manner) obscuring decades of social innovation - was greeted with a wave of economic enthusiasm (new markets), as well as a corresponding sense of political possibility regarding remedies to the 'democracy deficit' of institutions of governance (e-democracy, e-inclusion, m2m/p2p as new model for public sphere communication). In the following, I will insist on a more comprehensive sense of social technologies as 'technologies of the common' that take seriously the return of political ontology and its engagement of the question of political constitution. Situated between social technologies and techniques of governance, 'technologies of the common' serves here as a heuristic device to explore differences and similarities of related processes of social constitution, and identify their relevance to the articulation of alternative modalities of governance. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb3-1&quot; name=&quot;nh3-1&quot; id=&quot;nh3-1&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[1] This essay was written in the context of a collaborative research (...)' &gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;h3 class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Europe/Culture/Economy as Mots d'Ordre in an Emergent Policy Regime &lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;In a move that illustrates the accelerating integration of culture into the creation of economic value, the EU has identified the &quot;economy of culture&quot; as a policy priority. The report&#8222;The Economy of Culture in Europe&#8220; commissioned by the EC in 2006 has initiated the political revaluation of the so-called Creative Industries (CI) across Europe. Following a 2007 decision by the European cultural ministers to establish the Creative Industries as a major topic of the German EU-Presidency, a conference on &#8220;Cultural and Creative Industries in Europe&#8221; was held in in May 2007.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Its conclusion, submitted to the Council of the European Union, relates this priority to the 2005 relaunch of the Lisbon Agenda (creation of growth and employment) and generally affirms the capacity of the cultural and creative sectors to serve as 'engines' of (sustainable) growth, employment, and innovation. In its Communication &quot;A European agenda for culture in a globalising world&quot;, the European Commission defines a cultural strategy for its institutions, its members states, as well as the cultural and creative sectors in terms of three priorities: the promotion of a) cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue, b) culture as a catalyts for creativity in the framework of the Lisbon strategy, and c) culture as a vital instrument in the EU's international relations. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb3-2&quot; name=&quot;nh3-2&quot; id=&quot;nh3-2&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[2] All policy documents are available online at .' &gt;2&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;While the optimism of these policy initiatives is not yet compromised by sobering analysis of the sustainability of an economy of culture defined in these terms, what is important to me here is that these documents describe an emergent policy regime. Despite the invocation of the Lisbon strategy and the generally assuring tone that establish the cultural and creative sectors at the centre of related policy formulations, many of the elements of this framework have yet to be definitively elaborated and therefore remain open to contestation and reappropriation.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;h3 class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;From Civil Society to Technologies of the Common &lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The controversial UN World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) 2003-5 was evidence of the extent to which the elements of this policy regime remain contested, especially the question of how different (mutually exclusive) concepts of creativity and innovation are to be institutionally articulated that were central to the Campaign for Communication Rights, as well as subsequent organizing efforts around an Access to Knowlegde Treaty (UN), a Development Mandate for the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), or the adoption of an Open Document Format (ODF) by the International Standards Organization (ISO).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;CRIS was a key 'civil society' dynamic that struggled to mediate between the intergovernmental logic of the summit and the non-governmental logic of social movements efforts outside the scope of civil society. I mention the campaign here to insist that we include 'civil society' in the list of mots d'ordre whose effectivity in the emergent policy regime should be explored rather than assumed as an a priori in our approaches to the (organizational) dynamic of non-governmentality and its (constitutive) effects.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The 'inclusion' of 'civil society' has been a central element of post-sovereign paradigms of diplomacy and governance (exemplified by the ambitious strategy of multistakeholderism of the WSIS, whose development involved members of CRIS) and indeed the main mechanism of democratization (to increase, for example, the accountability and transparency of intergovernmental institutions and processes). Yet the assumption that 'civil society' serves as primary vehicle of democratization fails to acknowledge the extent to which this capacity has been called into question by critiques of the idiom of representation and the subsequent attention to processes of (social) constitution that create the agency/subjectivity such invocations of civil society (must) take for granted. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb3-3&quot; name=&quot;nh3-3&quot; id=&quot;nh3-3&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[3] See Soenke Zehle, &quot;The Campaign for Communication Rights: After the (...)' &gt;3&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Instead, I want to introduce the notion of 'technologies of the common' to approach the modalities of collective refusal-defection-withdrawal that constitute a terrain of democracy outside the conceptual and organizational idiom of representation. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb3-4&quot; name=&quot;nh3-4&quot; id=&quot;nh3-4&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[4] See Soenke Zehle, &quot;Technologies du Commun&quot;, Vacarme 34 (Hiver 2006), (...)' &gt;4&lt;/a&gt;]
Conventional wisdom (canonical statement: Olson, The Logic of Collective Action) used to hold that diffuse interests are not represented because the costs to individuals of organising in large groups are not matched by the small gains for each individual. With the arrival of social software (Web 2.0), the cost of organizing (understood in the sense of interest aggregation) theoretically tends toward zero, and the explosion of sites bases on 'friendship' (i.e. a logic of affect rather than representation) does seem to suggest that one of the main effects of social software is an increase in the (collective) capacity for self-
organization. It does not come as a surprise that these applications have been greeted with both commercial enthusiasm (new markets) and democracy-theoretical relief (democracy deficit).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;They rise of such autonomous (if only in the sense of self-refential rather than overlapping) 'new publics', however, does not signal the possibility of a return to a homogenous, integrated public sphere and corresponding models of political communication, but simply make visible a fragmentation of the public sphere beyond representational remedies. What is at stake is therefore not (nonly) a greater efficiency and effectivity of the technologies of representation, but the rise of non-representational means that affect the production of subjectivity. In its most basic sense, this means that media are not primarily considered in representational terms but in terms of a constitutive role that suggests different modalities of government incommensurable with (and indeed invisible from within) the idiom of representation.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;In his analysis of The Revolutions of Capitalism, Lazzarato invokes Bakhtin to contend that &quot;[t]he relation between self and other must be understood neither as a relation between a subject and an object nor as a relation between subjects, but rather as an event-like relation between 'possible worlds'&quot; since &quot;[t]he other is neither an object nor a subject; it is the expression of possible worlds&quot; (2007: 102). To reconceptualize the relations between the living, resistance, and power on the basis of such an event-like relation between self and other rather than an ontology of the subject, Lazzarato turns to the 'techniques of government' initially introduced by Foucault as element of a comprehensive definition of power. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb3-5&quot; name=&quot;nh3-5&quot; id=&quot;nh3-5&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[5] Michel Foucault, &#8220;Deux essais sur le sujet et le pouvoir&#8221;, (...)' &gt;5&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;What intrigues Lazzarato about Foucault's definition of power is the latter's sense that power is primarily to be understood in terms of the capacity to control - constitute and define - the ways in which others may conduct themselves. Foucault surveys the constitutive elements of such a capacity often subsumed under a single definition: strategic relations, techniques of government, and relations of domination. Strategic relations are the means - &quot;infinitesimal, mobile, reversible, and unstable power games&quot; (ibid. 103) - of modifying asymmetrical power relations in an ongoing process; relations of domination arrest such a process, crystallyzing (here: arresting) the freedom, fluidity, and reversibility of strategic relations by inscribing them within specific institutional forms (such as the trade union, the party, or state institutions).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Technologies or techniques of government are situated in an intermediate region between these two dynamics. Defined as ensemble of practices for the government of relation - to the self as well as others - , these technologies decide whether or not strategic relations remain open to the experimentation of subjectivations that escape states of domination (ibid. 104). &quot;Political action&quot;, Lazzarto concludes, &quot;must therefore concentrate on techniques of government&quot; (ibid.), and stress the creation of new techniques to govern strategic relations.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;It is the invention of new rules that &quot;increase the liberty, mobility, and reversibility of power games&quot; that lies at the heart of political action. Constructed collectively and cutting &quot;across strategic relations and states of domination transversally&quot; (ibid.), these rules are the preconditions - the conditions of possibility - of resistance, creation, and the experimentation of relationships. They offer relations &quot;a reversibility assured not by the transcendence of the law and of right, or by categorical statements on equality, but by the action of mobile and nomadic institutions such as coordinations&quot; and create a space &quot;'between' the microphysics of power and the institutions of domination [that] is propitious for a politics of becoming and creation, for the invention of new forms of subjectivation&quot; (105). This discussion leads us to an insistance on the primacy of protocols governing the modalities of social constitution - and establishes the conflictual process of their creation and recreation as a conflictual dynamic at the heart of the network society.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Castellsian network theory has very little to say on how the protocols that govern the network society, structure (cultural, economic, political) processes across the space of flows, and facilitate the transformation of the network state are defined. In his engagement with Castells, Felix Stalder has emphasized the work of Peter Drahos as exemplary in illustrating the extent to which the definition of such protocols (and the new governance regimes they define, enable, and sustain) can, after all, be mapped. Despite his interest in the rise of the network state (and save a passing references to the fact that networks are programmed by actors and institutions), Castells does not explore new governance regimes organized around the World Trade Organization (WTO) or the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and says little about the cross-sectoral (education, medicine, software, etc.) struggles for access and against proprietarization that are have arguably become a signature dynamic of conflict across network societies. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb3-6&quot; name=&quot;nh3-6&quot; id=&quot;nh3-6&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[6] Felix Stalder, Manuel Castells: The Theory of the Network Society, (...)' &gt;6&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Yet Lazzarato makes clear that resistance to proprietarization is only one register of developing alternative techniques of government. For him, a new type of political event (already) occurred in Seattle, an event that illustrated the extent to which 'media' and its creative usage by a multiplicity of collective actors pointed beyond the idiom of representation (2003). These organizing efforts, triggered (but not limited to) by the resistance to proprietarization, illustrated and involved a reaffirmation of the capacity for collaborative constitution, hence a sense of expression in a sense much wider than those employed by cyperlibertarian critiques of corporate media control and a corresponding limitation of the freedom of expression to the freedom of speech. Lazzarato offers a much wider sense of expression, which inspires the reformulation of techniques of government as technologies of the common - the techniques of self-organization that are involved in processes of collaborative constitution. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;h3 class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Ethics beyond a Logic of Scarcity &lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Returning to the current conjunction of culture/economy from within the perspective sketched here, I want to suggest that the assumption of a fundamental (in)commensurability of these two domains - a commensurability which would then enable their integration in the name of growth and innovation, an incommensurability which would legitimate the invocation pfof cultural autonomy as main strategy of resistance - is what should be explored.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;While the tension between anthropological and commercial conceptions of culture (familiar since the work on the culture industries by members of the Frankfurt Institute of Social Research) is a well-established topic of inquiry in cultural criticism, the rise of the idiom of creative industries as core dynamic of an economy of culture has intensified the debate over how this tension should be (conceptually) articulated and (politically) addressed.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Organized opposition to the integration of culture into the economy, Lazzarato notes in his own reflections on the contemporary transformation of culture/creativity, often (and especially in France) follows a strategy of cultural exceptionalism. Yet instead of invoking the self-evidence of a (European) principle of cultural autonomy to substantiate and sustain the difference between culture and economy, he insists (with Tarde) that &quot;the modes of production, socialisation and appropriation of knowledge and of culture are different than the modes of production, socialisation and appropriation of wealth&quot; (2004).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Rather than reaffirming the autonomy of the cultura vis-a-vis the economic, strategies of resistance should acknowledge that the modes of production and socialisation peculiar to culture have come to determine the economy, a strategy that inevitably calls into question the (current) principles of political economy as it highlights their inability to comprehend the nature of the cultural object - or must transform them to subsume them under the logic of scarcity, hence the establishment of comprehensive intellectual property regimes to achieve artificial scarcity by way of the introduction of false origins (Digital Rights Management/DRM etc.). Because the principles at the core of regimes of intellectual property rights suggests that it is the anticipation of commercial returns that is considered the source of creativity (see WIPO), the proprietarization of information and knowledges is considered a core strategy of innovation. And if human rights are expected to contain/repair the excesses of the market economy, the demand (current example: EU vs China) to protect both human rights and IPR suggests that these are twin sides of a single currency in the expanding economy of culture.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Yet this is, then, one of the paradoxes of the information society: it is structured according to principles of governance that fail to acknowledge the nature of the very objects (knowledges) whose centrality is considered constitutive for its emergence. And because cultural objects do not have to become objects of exchange to be communicated (their usage is based on social communication rather than definitive alienation or destructive consumption, defying the logic of a political economy rooted in a dichotomous view of the relation between use and exchange), the evaluation of gains and losses calls for an ethics rather than markets (ibid.). Such an ethics does not (only) call into question processes of commodification, but argues that the economic significance of the cultural and creative sectors cannot even be apprehended from political economy as we know it. A comprehensive sense of how collaborative creation and constitution occur necessarily, in this view, opens itself to a different economic logic as well as a dynamic of constitution beyond the idiom of rights and representation.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;If we can no longer take the democratic (economic) subject for granted, how do we reflect on the production of agency/subjectivity in the network society more generally - and at which point does such an exploration become a matter of ethical practice? To subordinate the cultural to the economic necessitates the imposition of the logic of scarcity. Resistance to this imposition cannot, Lazzarato argues, simply insist on a tradition of cultural autonomy that in fact reaffirms the essential difference of these domains; instead, &quot;perhaps for the first time in humanity's history, artistic, intellectual and economic labour, on one hand, and the consumption of goods and appropriation of knowledge and beauty-values, on the other, demand to be regulated by the same ethics&quot; (ibid.). The question of ethics, then, cannot be raised as an afterthought, but bears a constitutive relation to the analysis of the culture/economy nexus, as it is directly related to the relational, inexhaustible nature of the cultural object. It remains to be see whether an ethical engagement of this relationality will yield 'better' (equal, just, sustainable etc.) modalities of governance, or simply signal an ungovernability that is in fact constutive of the dynamic we, perhaps too quickly, have come to subsume under 'culture/creativity'.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Works Cited&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;br /&gt;
Bove, Arianna. &quot;Technologies of the Common.&quot; A critical ontology of the present: Foucault and the task of our times. (2007). &lt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.generation-online.org/other/acop/acopcontents.htm&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;http://www.generation-&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
online.org/other/acop/acopcontents.htm&gt;.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Foucault, Michel. &quot;The Subject and Power&quot;. Critical Inquiry 8.4 (Summer 1982). 777-795.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Lazzarato, Maurizio. &quot;European cultural tradition and the new forms of production and circulation of knowledge.&quot; Multitudes (16.01.2004). &lt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://multitudes.samizdat.net/&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;http://multitudes.samizdat.net&lt;/a&gt;&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Lazzarato, Maurizio. &quot;From The Revolutions of Capitalism.&quot; SubStance 36.1 (2007). 99-105.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Lazzarato, Maurizio. &quot;Struggle, Event, Media&quot;. (2003). &lt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.republicart.net/&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;http://www.republicart.net&lt;/a&gt;&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Stalder, Felix. Manuel Castells: The Theory of the Network Society. London: Polity Press, 2006.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Zehle, Soenke. &quot;Technologies du Commun&quot;. Vacarme 34 (Hiver 2006). 91-94.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Zehle, Soenke. &quot;The Campaign for Communication Rights: After the World Summit on the Information Society&quot;. Non-Governmental Politics. Ed. Michel Feher. New York: Zone Books, 2007. 391-98.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Dr. Soenke Zehle &lt;br /&gt;
Transcultural Media Studies Project FR 4.3 &lt;br /&gt;
Universitaet des Saarlandes 66041 Saarbruecken &lt;br /&gt;
Germany &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;s.zehle@mx.uni-saarland.de&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Soenke Zehle teaches transcultural literary and media studies at Saarland University as well as the Academy of Fine Arts in Saarbruecken, Germany. He holds degrees in comparative literature, philosophy, and translation. For a full list of publications see &lt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tas.uni-saarland.de/&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;http://www.tas.uni-saarland.de&lt;/a&gt;&gt;.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_155 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right; width:99px;'&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/fr/&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;&lt;img src='http://www.voxinternet.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L99xH33_logo_CC-47-d0100.gif' width='99' height='33' alt=&quot;&quot; style='height:33px;width:99px;' class='' /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;hr /&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_notes'&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh3-1&quot; name=&quot;nb3-1&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Footnotes 3-1&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;] This essay was written in the context of a collaborative research process exploring the modalities of subjectivation and institutional formation across network societies. I thank Julian Kuecklich, Brett Neilson, and Ned Rossiter for comments on this version.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh3-2&quot; name=&quot;nb3-2&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Footnotes 3-2&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;] All policy documents are available online at &lt;http://www.european-creative-industries.eu&gt;.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh3-3&quot; name=&quot;nb3-3&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Footnotes 3-3&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;] See Soenke Zehle, &quot;The Campaign for Communication Rights: After the World Summit on the Information Society&quot;, Non-Governmental Politics, ed. Michel Feher, New York: Zone Books, 2007, 391-98. On Access-to-Knowledge (A2K), Paris Accords, WIPO Development, Open Document Format, see &lt;http://www.cptech.org/a2k&gt;.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh3-4&quot; name=&quot;nb3-4&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Footnotes 3-4&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;] See Soenke Zehle, &quot;Technologies du Commun&quot;, Vacarme 34 (Hiver 2006), 91-94. The notion of 'technologies of the common' emerged in the context of another collabotrative research process in 2004, including Arianna Bov&#233;, Erik Empson, Susanne Lang, Geert Lovink, Florian Schneider, and Soenke Zehle: &quot;The new technologies of the common are not universal hierarchies of political right but small scale and intimate practices of constitution. The new involves those who see the limitations of individual social practices of self-realisation and desire to turn them into general and transferable social technologies of emancipation&quot; &lt;http://neuro.kein.org&gt;. Bov&#233; has since elaborated this term as well, stressing the interpretation of exodus-defection-withdraw as (social) innovation. See her &quot;Technologies of the Common&quot; in A critical ontology of the present: Foucault and the task of our times (Dissertation 2007), available at &lt;http://www.generation-online.org/other/acop/acopcontents.htm&gt;.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh3-5&quot; name=&quot;nb3-5&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Footnotes 3-5&quot;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;] Michel Foucault, &#8220;Deux essais sur le sujet et le pouvoir&#8221;, Dits et &#201;crits, vol. II (Paris: Gallimard, 2001); transl. as &quot;The Subject and Power&quot;, Critical Inquiry, Vol. 8, No. 4 (Summer, 1982), pp. 777-795.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh3-6&quot; name=&quot;nb3-6&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Footnotes 3-6&quot;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;] Felix Stalder, Manuel Castells: The Theory of the Network Society, London: Polity Press, 2006.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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	<item>
		<title>Web participatif : vers un engagement citoyen de l'usager ?</title>
		<link>http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?article171</link>
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		<dc:date>2007-10-16T22:00:00Z</dc:date>
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		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		

<category domain="http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?rubrique14">L'Internet des objets : communication et identit&#233;s</category>

		<dc:subject>Article scientifique</dc:subject>

		<description>Web participatif et vie d&#233;mocratique &lt;br /&gt;Nous formulons l'hypoth&#232;se qu'un usage significatif des outils du Web participatif - appel&#233; aussi &#171; Web 2.0 &#187; - pourrait fournir &#224; l'usager de l'Internet, l'opportunit&#233; de devenir progressivement un acteur civique et culturel &#224; part enti&#232;re dans la soci&#233;t&#233; mondialis&#233;e d'aujourd'hui. L'&#233;ventail d'application de ces outils concerne en effet de nombreux domaines d&#233;cisifs pour la communication et la construction de r&#233;seaux transfronti&#232;res de personnes (...)


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&lt;a href="http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?mot21" rel="tag"&gt;Article scientifique&lt;/a&gt;

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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt; &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Web participatif et vie d&#233;mocratique &lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Nous formulons l'hypoth&#232;se qu'un usage significatif des outils du Web participatif -
appel&#233; aussi &#171; Web 2.0 &#187; - pourrait fournir &#224; l'usager de l'Internet, l'opportunit&#233; de devenir progressivement un acteur civique et culturel &#224; part enti&#232;re dans la soci&#233;t&#233; mondialis&#233;e d'aujourd'hui. L'&#233;ventail d'application de ces outils concerne en effet de nombreux domaines d&#233;cisifs pour la communication et la construction de r&#233;seaux transfronti&#232;res de personnes et de collectifs : &lt;br /&gt;
&#183; outils de socialisation (sites de social media suscitant la constitution de &lt;br /&gt;
r&#233;seaux sociaux tels MySpace ou Facebook, sites de rencontres, sites d'immersion (m&#233;taverses) tel Second Life, jeux en r&#233;seau, r&#233;pertoires d'interlocuteurs, chats, messagerie instantan&#233;e ; &lt;br /&gt;
&#183; outils de mise en relation ou de coordination des activit&#233;s (au traditionnel courriel et nombreux forums en ligne, s'ajoutent les services audiovisuels et Internet offerts via la t&#233;l&#233;phonie mobile) ; &lt;br /&gt;
&#183; outils de cr&#233;ation, d'&#233;change et de partage de contenus : blogs, User Generated Content (UGC), peering...&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;La question fondamentale est de savoir si et comment ces nouveaux m&#233;dias associ&#233;s d'abord et surtout &#224; l'univers mondialis&#233; du divertissement, pourraient constituer par ailleurs des sources d'informations cr&#233;dibles et fiables pour une meilleure participation des usagers-citoyens &#224; la vie d&#233;mocratique de leur communaut&#233;.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Le paysage m&#233;diatique fa&#231;onn&#233; aujourd'hui par le Web participatif est travers&#233; par de nouvelles logiques de mise en visibilit&#233; des personnes, des groupes, des mouvements sociaux, des entreprises autant que de mise en circulation des produits culturels qui marquent une rupture relative avec la d&#233;pendance habituelle aux grands m&#233;dias quant &#224; l'application du principe de publicit&#233; dans les soci&#233;t&#233;s dites de la modernit&#233; avanc&#233;e (late modernity) [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-1&quot; name=&quot;nh4-1&quot; id=&quot;nh4-1&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[1] Voir Anthony Giddens, Les cons&#233;quences de la modernit&#233;, (...)' &gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]. Ainsi, de plus en plus, dans ces soci&#233;t&#233;s, l'existence politique des acteurs sociaux est subordonn&#233;e &#224; leur visibilit&#233; m&#233;diatique. Jusqu'&#224; maintenant, c'&#233;taient les m&#233;dias traditionnels de diffusion (presse, t&#233;l&#233;vision) qui exer&#231;aient un contr&#244;le serr&#233; et quasi-exclusif sur les m&#233;canismes de mise en visibilit&#233; m&#233;diatique de ces acteurs. Or, la grande popularit&#233; du Web participatif laisse entrevoir l'&#233;mergence d'une part, d'espaces publics pluriels et h&#233;t&#233;rog&#232;nes et d'autre part, de nouveaux m&#233;canismes de prise de parole et de mise en visibilit&#233; des acteurs (anonymes ou d&#233;j&#224; connus) [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-2&quot; name=&quot;nh4-2&quot; id=&quot;nh4-2&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[2] Voir le r&#233;cent num&#233;ro th&#233;matique de la revue Herm&#232;s, 47 (CNRS &#233;ditions, (...)' &gt;2&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;La r&#233;alisation de cette potentialit&#233; - c'est-&#224;-dire la possibilit&#233; que l'usage du Web participatif puisse faire de l'usager un acteur civique et culturel &#224; part enti&#232;re -
suppose cependant que ce dispositif num&#233;rique puisse constituer une &#171; ressource &#187; pour faire mieux participer les individus et les groupes &#224; la sph&#232;re publique. M&#234;me si cette distinction fait l'objet de controverses au sein de la communaut&#233; des chercheurs, nous souhaitons faire ici un parall&#232;le avec des travaux en sociologie de la r&#233;ception de la t&#233;l&#233;vision qui introduisent une distinction entre audience et public [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-3&quot; name=&quot;nh4-3&quot; id=&quot;nh4-3&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[3] Dayan, Daniel (2000), &#171; T&#233;l&#233;vision, le presque-public &#187;, R&#233;seaux, (...)' &gt;3&lt;/a&gt;]. L'&#171; audience &#187; serait davantage une fiction statistique construite par les entreprises m&#233;diatiques ayant besoin de mon&#233;tariser l'attention in&#233;galement distribu&#233;e parmi les ensembles de t&#233;l&#233;spectateurs. La cat&#233;gorie d&#233;signant un &#171; public &#187; mettrait &lt;br /&gt;
davantage en &#233;vidence un sentiment r&#233;flexif d'appartenance partag&#233; par ses membres, s'exprimant notamment &#224; travers des activit&#233;s internes de sociabilit&#233;, de m&#234;me que par une volont&#233; de se d&#233;finir comme entit&#233; propre face &#224; d'autres publics. La cat&#233;gorie &#171; audience &#187;, au contraire, aurait pour effet de dissoudre la dimension collective de l'&#233;coute, de la d&#233;tacher de son inscription dans un processus social [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-4&quot; name=&quot;nh4-4&quot; id=&quot;nh4-4&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[4] Chalvon-Demersay, Sabine (1998), &#171; La mesure du public : approche (...)' &gt;4&lt;/a&gt;]. Cette d&#233;socialisation du t&#233;l&#233;spectateur par les institutions m&#233;diatiques co&#239;nciderait avec une d&#233;finition de ce dernier comme n'ayant pas droit &#224; la parole, et, en cons&#233;quence, interdirait que l'audience puisse &#234;tre trait&#233;e en sujet collectif. Les &#233;tudes de r&#233;ception auraient ainsi la pr&#233;tention de re-constituer les ensembles de t&#233;l&#233;spectateurs en &#171; publics &#187; et donc de les r&#233;tablir dans un r&#244;le de &#171; sujet &#187; susceptible de prise de parole dans la sph&#232;re publique.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Revenons maintenant &#224; l'usager m&#233;diatique qui nous int&#233;resse ici, &#224; savoir : l'usager du Web participatif. Les divers r&#233;seaux d'usagers du Web collaboratif constituent-ils des audiences ou des publics ? Si l'on prolonge les analyses de Sonia Livingstone [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-5&quot; name=&quot;nh4-5&quot; id=&quot;nh4-5&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[5] Livingstone, Sonia (2004), &#171; Du rapport entre audiences et publics &#187;, (...)' &gt;5&lt;/a&gt;] quant &#224; ces nouveaux m&#233;dias, nous serions face &#224; des entit&#233;s nouvelles : ces collectifs d'usagers connect&#233;s constitueraient des &#171; objets hybrides &#187;. Comment &lt;br /&gt;
alors les utilisateurs de ces nouveaux m&#233;dias num&#233;riques pourraient-ils se constituer en &#171; publics &#187; ayant une comp&#233;tence &#224; intervenir dans la sph&#232;re publique ? &lt;br /&gt;
Comment ces m&#233;dias collaboratifs (des social media aux blogs personnels ou politiques) pourraient-ils devenir des &#171; ressources &#187; pour une participation &#224; la vie culturelle et citoyenne ? Ces m&#233;dias num&#233;riques se r&#233;duiront-ils &#224; n'&#234;tre que de nouveaux moyens d'&#233;vasion (c'est-&#224;-dire de refuge dans l'univers du priv&#233;) qui &#233;loigneraient encore une fois les gens de la sph&#232;re publique ? Au contraire, ces nouveaux m&#233;dias num&#233;riques peuvent-ils constituer des ressources cognitives, informationnelles permettant &#224; leurs usagers de devenir des citoyens politiquement conscients et possiblement plus actifs dans la sph&#232;re culturelle et publique ?&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Nos premiers &#233;l&#233;ments de r&#233;ponse &#224; ce type de questions s'appuient sur l'hypoth&#232;se suivante : ce serait pr&#233;cis&#233;ment la dimension essentiellement participative du m&#233;dia qui pourrait favoriser un engagement culturel et citoyen de la part de l'usager. Le nouveau m&#233;dia que constitue le Web participatif suppose en effet une rupture dans notre mani&#232;re d'appr&#233;hender les impacts possibles des usages d'un m&#233;dia dans la&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;constitution de l'univers culturel et dans l'expression publique de la soci&#233;t&#233; civile. Il nous faudrait peut-&#234;tre revenir ici &#224; l'esprit de l'aphorisme macluhanien &#171; the medium is the message &#187; en ce sens que ce serait l'usage en soi du medium collaboratif, ind&#233;pendamment des contenus qui y seraient transit&#233;s, qui pourrait d&#233;clencher l'engagement civique et culturel de l'usager interacteur, apparaissant comme le nouveau sujet communicant dans l'univers du Web participatif [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-6&quot; name=&quot;nh4-6&quot; id=&quot;nh4-6&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[6] Bardini, T., S. Proulx, D. B&#233;langer (2000), &#171; Des nouvelles de (...)' &gt;6&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Dans la mesure o&#249; l'usage significatif du Web participatif pourrait susciter un renouvellement des formes de l'engagement civique - une th&#233;matique qui exigerait certainement la r&#233;alisation de plusieurs programmes de recherche sp&#233;cifiques - il nous appara&#238;t pertinent d'explorer le r&#244;le que pourraient jouer les gouvernements nationaux dans le d&#233;veloppement de ces nouveaux m&#233;dias num&#233;riques, et en particulier, dans la promotion des &#171; contenus g&#233;n&#233;r&#233;s par les utilisateurs &#187; (user generated content - UGC) [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-7&quot; name=&quot;nh4-7&quot; id=&quot;nh4-7&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[7] Je pr&#233;senterai dans les pages qui suivent certaines th&#233;matiques (...)' &gt;7&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt; &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Un r&#244;le &#224; jouer pour les gouvernements ?&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;D&#233;finir le r&#244;le des gouvernements dans le cas des UGC n'est pas simple. D'abord parce que le Web participatif et les UGC sont un ph&#233;nom&#232;ne r&#233;cent, complexe, et peu de gouvernements ont eu le temps de mettre en place des politiques syst&#233;matiques pour accompagner leur d&#233;veloppement futur. Il faut dire que dans certains pays o&#249; l'on a rapidement implant&#233; Internet, l'on en est encore souvent &#224; absorber les effets des multiples lois et politiques mises en place il y a peu d'ann&#233;es, pour encadrer les aspects r&#233;glementaires, juridiques, &#233;conomiques ou culturels de cette mutation num&#233;rique des m&#233;dias. Ensuite, parce que la perc&#233;e r&#233;cente des UGC est venue compliquer la donne et plusieurs gouvernements ne savent pas encore si la conversion de l'utilisateur consign&#233; jusqu'ici &#224; un r&#244;le passif vers la figure d'un interacteur cr&#233;ateur, n&#233;cessitera une reconsid&#233;ration des rapports entre les diff&#233;rents groupes d'acteurs du monde num&#233;rique et, en cons&#233;quence, des politiques qui les encadrent [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-8&quot; name=&quot;nh4-8&quot; id=&quot;nh4-8&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[8] Les d&#233;bats au sein de l&amp;#39;OCDE traduisent les ambivalences entre (...)' &gt;8&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Toutefois, quelques tentatives gouvernementales entourant les UGC sont r&#233;cemment apparues dont les objectifs sont de reconsid&#233;rer le r&#244;le des individus et des organisations dans le processus de cr&#233;ation et de consommation des contenus num&#233;riques. Ces tentatives servent aussi &#224; red&#233;finir les relations entre les diff&#233;rents groupes d'acteurs agissant sur les contenus, notamment : producteurs de contenus, diffuseurs, soci&#233;t&#233;s de gestion des droits, consommateurs/cr&#233;ateurs et &#201;tats. Il se d&#233;gage essentiellement deux types d'approche gouvernementale : la premi&#232;re est une approche &#233;volutive faite de changements ponctuels touchant des aspects sp&#233;cifiques reli&#233;s aux UGC (cadres r&#233;glementaires et l&#233;gaux, politiques d'acc&#232;s aux contenus, programmes facilitant la cr&#233;ation de contenus) ; la deuxi&#232;me approche est&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;plus drastique et consiste &#224; proposer un nouveau regard sur la place que pourraient occuper les UGC dans le cadre plus g&#233;n&#233;ral du d&#233;veloppement des industries culturelles. C'est d'ailleurs un d&#233;bat que vient de lancer l'organisme britannique de r&#233;gulation des t&#233;l&#233;communications (OFCOM) [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-9&quot; name=&quot;nh4-9&quot; id=&quot;nh4-9&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[9] http://www.ofcom.org.uk/' &gt;9&lt;/a&gt;] et sur lequel nous reviendrons.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Au Canada, suite &#224; la mise en place d'un processus de consultation d'une ann&#233;e et qui s'est termin&#233; en d&#233;cembre 2006 lors d'un Sommet national tenu &#224; Montebello (Qu&#233;bec) [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-10&quot; name=&quot;nh4-10&quot; id=&quot;nh4-10&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[10] Voir http://www.collectionscanada.ca/cdis/012033-611-f.html' &gt;10&lt;/a&gt;], Biblioth&#232;ques et Archives Canada (BAC) avait entrepris des r&#233;flexions concernant l'&#233;tablissement d'une strat&#233;gie canadienne sur l'information num&#233;rique. Diff&#233;rentes probl&#233;matiques ont &#233;t&#233; abord&#233;es, associ&#233;es notamment &#224; la num&#233;risation et &#224; la pr&#233;servation de divers types de contenus mais aussi &#224; l'acc&#232;s et l'appropriation de ces contenus &#224; travers les nouveaux usages du Web participatif. Les discussions tenues lors d'une session de pr&#233;paration du Sommet en mai 2006 [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-11&quot; name=&quot;nh4-11&quot; id=&quot;nh4-11&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[11] Cette session s&amp;#39;est tenue le 9 mai 2006 et l&amp;#39;on a pr&#233;sent&#233; (...)' &gt;11&lt;/a&gt;] ont mis en relief la n&#233;cessit&#233; de faciliter l'acc&#232;s &#233;largi &#224; de multiples contenus d'archives de mani&#232;re &#224; ce que les Canadiens puissent utiliser pleinement les potentialit&#233;s du nouveau Web [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-12&quot; name=&quot;nh4-12&quot; id=&quot;nh4-12&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[12] Citons par exemple : &#171; On se rend de plus en plus compte que les (...)' &gt;12&lt;/a&gt;]. Plusieurs intervenants ont insist&#233; sur la n&#233;cessit&#233; d'accro&#238;tre l'accessibilit&#233; des citoyens aux contenus. Ils souhaitent que les gouvernements puissent travailler avec les repr&#233;sentants des divers secteurs des industries culturelles pour faciliter cet acc&#232;s.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;La question des relations entre l'utilisateur, le cr&#233;ateur et les interm&#233;diaires a aussi &#233;t&#233; trait&#233;e, probl&#233;matique exprim&#233;e de mani&#232;re synth&#233;tique &#224; travers la formulation de la question suivante : &#171; Existe-t-il des fa&#231;ons cr&#233;atrices qui permettraient au Canada de concilier la maximisation de l'acc&#232;s &#224; l'information, afin que celle-ci puisse &#234;tre utilis&#233;e et r&#233;utilis&#233;e librement &#224; des fins d'&#233;ducation, de recherche, de divertissement ou de cr&#233;ation artistique au sein de notre soci&#233;t&#233;, et le soutien au droit des cr&#233;ateurs d'exercer un contr&#244;le sur l'utilisation de leurs &#339;uvres et de tirer une r&#233;mun&#233;ration de celles-ci ? &#187; [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-13&quot; name=&quot;nh4-13&quot; id=&quot;nh4-13&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[13] Ibid.' &gt;13&lt;/a&gt;]. Les participants ont discut&#233; de plusieurs pistes de solution pour accro&#238;tre l'offre des contenus et les rendre accessibles en ligne. Gratuits ou payants, les contenus feraient l'objet d'une politique concert&#233;e, nationale, de num&#233;risation des contenus provenant de l'ensemble des organisations du secteur public (Radio-Canada, ONF...) ou du secteur priv&#233; (industries du disque, du cin&#233;ma, du livre...) ainsi que des partenariats que n&#233;gocieraient ces deux secteurs dans le cadre de la num&#233;risation de leurs catalogues et la cr&#233;ation de nouveaux contenus.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt; &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&#201;largir l'acc&#232;s public aux contenus (open access)&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt; [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-14&quot; name=&quot;nh4-14&quot; id=&quot;nh4-14&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[14] La notion d&amp;#39;acc&#232;s libre peut &#234;tre interpr&#233;t&#233; de fa&#231;on extensive, (...)' &gt;14&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;L'appel pour la mise &#224; disposition des contenus aux utilisateurs concerne en premier lieu les gouvernements &#224; qui l'on a souvent demand&#233; de se d&#233;partir de droits sur les contenus qu'ils poss&#232;dent d&#233;j&#224;, tels ceux de la couronne (crown copyright). C'est un argument qui est souvent r&#233;it&#233;r&#233; par ceux qui voudraient que le Canada montre la voie et lib&#232;re de droits tous les contenus cr&#233;&#233;s par et pour l'&#201;tat, gr&#226;ce aux subsides publics. Michael Geist pr&#244;ne l'&#233;limination de ces droits comme l'une des conditions n&#233;cessaires &#224; l'acc&#232;s public aux contenus (open access) [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-15&quot; name=&quot;nh4-15&quot; id=&quot;nh4-15&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[15] Voir http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/60/51/37985757.pdf Citons Michael (...)' &gt;15&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;D'autres entit&#233;s paragouvernementales financ&#233;es sur fonds publics embo&#238;teraient certainement le pas du gouvernement - ces organisations &#233;tant aussi des &lt;br /&gt;
producteurs de contenus &#224; haute valeur ajout&#233;e pour les utilisateurs. La notion d'acc&#232;s public s'appliquerait bien au monde acad&#233;mique et &#224; celui de la recherche car elle permettrait la mise &#224; disposition universelle d'un plus grand nombre de contenus qui, en temps normal, ne sont accessibles qu'&#224; une minorit&#233; d'utilisateurs (professeurs, chercheurs, &#233;tudiants). Le Web participatif encourage un acc&#232;s plus ouvert aux contenus, quelle que soit la source. D&#233;j&#224;, au Canada, nous pourrions utiliser des consortiums r&#233;gionaux et provinciaux tels le R&#233;seau canadien de documentation et de recherche [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-16&quot; name=&quot;nh4-16&quot; id=&quot;nh4-16&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[16] http://researchknowledge.ca/' &gt;16&lt;/a&gt;] pour octroyer des licences relatives &#224; des revues sp&#233;cialis&#233;es et des bases de donn&#233;es orient&#233;es vers des publics plus larges que ceux anticip&#233;s [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-17&quot; name=&quot;nh4-17&quot; id=&quot;nh4-17&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[17] Voir http://www.collectionscanada.ca/scin/012033-905-f.html La demande (...)' &gt;17&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Les repr&#233;sentants des industries culturelles (entit&#233;s publiques et entreprises &lt;br /&gt;
commerciales priv&#233;es dans les domaines du livre, du disque ou de la t&#233;l&#233;vision) pourraient aussi contribuer &#224; la mise &#224; disposition de leurs contenus vers les utilisateurs grand public. Si la gratuit&#233; n'est pas toujours une option, il y a diff&#233;rentes fa&#231;ons de faciliter l'acc&#232;s &#224; divers types de contenus et leur utilisation. Le document publi&#233; par Biblioth&#232;ques et Archives Canada (BAC) propose ainsi diverses options&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;de distribution de contenus (licences, publicit&#233;, abonnement...) qui augmenteraient significativement l'offre des contenus num&#233;riques aux utilisateurs [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-18&quot; name=&quot;nh4-18&quot; id=&quot;nh4-18&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[18] Voir http://www.collectionscanada.ca/scin/012033-905-f.html' &gt;18&lt;/a&gt;]. Des initiatives allant dans ce sens ont d&#233;j&#224; &#233;t&#233; amorc&#233;es par des organisations publiques comme la Soci&#233;t&#233; Radio-Canada (SRC) [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-19&quot; name=&quot;nh4-19&quot; id=&quot;nh4-19&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[19] http://archives.radio-canada.ca' &gt;19&lt;/a&gt;] ou l'Office national du film (ONF) [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-20&quot; name=&quot;nh4-20&quot; id=&quot;nh4-20&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[20] www.onf.ca' &gt;20&lt;/a&gt;] &#224; l'int&#233;rieur de leur mandat et en fonction de leurs priorit&#233;s institutionnelles.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Les Archives de la SRC [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-21&quot; name=&quot;nh4-21&quot; id=&quot;nh4-21&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[21] L&amp;#39;utilisateur a acc&#232;s &#224; des archives choisis par la SRC (...)' &gt;21&lt;/a&gt;] s'inscrivent dans cet esprit d'acc&#232;s public et sensibilisent les utilisateurs &#224; de grands moments de l'histoire du Canada &#224; travers des archives radiophoniques et t&#233;l&#233;visuelles. La conversation entre les utilisateurs et la plateforme des archives n'est toutefois pas encore permise et c'est plut&#244;t sur la plateforme Web du site des nouvelles que la SRC a d&#233;cid&#233; d'introduire des fonctionnalit&#233;s et outils de type UGC, &#224; travers les blogs de ses journalistes et des appels &#224; commentaires orient&#233;s vers les lecteurs. La plateforme Web est compl&#233;mentaire aux autres plateformes radio et t&#233;l&#233;vision de la SRC bien que chacun de ces sites soit d&#233;velopp&#233; selon ses logiques respectives de production et de diffusion [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-22&quot; name=&quot;nh4-22&quot; id=&quot;nh4-22&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[22] Selon St&#233;phanie Paquette, directrice des archives num&#233;ris&#233;es et (...)' &gt;22&lt;/a&gt;]. Quant aux archives, la SRC veut mettre &#224; la disposition des internautes une plus grande quantit&#233; de documents bien qu'elle soit consciente des difficult&#233;s - notamment juridiques - qu'elle devra surmonter pour les rendre publiques [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-23&quot; name=&quot;nh4-23&quot; id=&quot;nh4-23&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[23] La SRC n&#233;gocie constamment avec diff&#233;rentes soci&#233;t&#233;s de gestion de (...)' &gt;23&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;L'Office national du film (ONF) suit de pr&#232;s l'avanc&#233;e du Web participatif tout en se questionnant sur l'utilisation que l'organisation pourrait faire des nouveaux outils du Web. L'ONF est &#224; la fois un producteur et un distributeur de films et de documentaires canadiens [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-24&quot; name=&quot;nh4-24&quot; id=&quot;nh4-24&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[24] Le mandat de l&amp;#39;ONF &#171; consiste &#224; produire et distribuer des (...)' &gt;24&lt;/a&gt;] et en ce sens, cette organisation con&#231;oit que l'arriv&#233;e du Web participatif pose un nouveau d&#233;fi : &#171; Nous voulons g&#233;rer la conversation entre l'auteur et le citoyen, tout en nous assurant de la qualit&#233; des contenus mis en ligne. &#187; [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-25&quot; name=&quot;nh4-25&quot; id=&quot;nh4-25&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[25] Entrevue r&#233;alis&#233;e avec Jo&#235;l Pomerleau et St&#233;phanie Barker.' &gt;25&lt;/a&gt;] Un exemple de l'effort que fait l'ONF pour int&#233;grer des &#233;l&#233;ments du Web participatif &#224; ses projets cin&#233;matographiques est son projet Parole citoyenne : &#171; un site Web interactif qui int&#232;gre la vid&#233;o, le texte, le son et d'autres m&#233;dias. Ce site est un espace o&#249; les cin&#233;astes et les citoyens peuvent partager leurs connaissances, entrer en contact et, le plus important, discuter des grands enjeux sociaux. &#187; [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-26&quot; name=&quot;nh4-26&quot; id=&quot;nh4-26&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[26] http://citoyen.onf.ca/onf/info ?aid=4961&amp;eid=4962&amp;atid=7' &gt;26&lt;/a&gt;] Bien qu'il ne soit ouvert qu'&#224; des participants choisis [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-27&quot; name=&quot;nh4-27&quot; id=&quot;nh4-27&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[27] &#201;tudiants canadiens appartenant &#224; l&amp;#39;un des trois groupes (...)' &gt;27&lt;/a&gt;], ce site donne un aper&#231;u du potentiel de participation que l'ONF pourrait offrir aux utilisateurs. Une autre initiative&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;encore plus orient&#233;e vers la cr&#233;ation de contenus cin&#233;matographiques de type UGC est le projet collaboratif OpenSourceCinema [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-28&quot; name=&quot;nh4-28&quot; id=&quot;nh4-28&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[28] www.opensourcecinema.org' &gt;28&lt;/a&gt;]. Ce projet est le r&#233;sultat d'une entente conclue entre l'ONF et trois autres organisations (Creative Commons, Eyesteelfilm et Blip.tv) pour faciliter la cr&#233;ation et la diffusion sur le Web de vid&#233;os documentaires de type UGC, engag&#233;s et ayant une valeur culturelle, con&#231;us par des &#171; r&#233;alisateurs &#233;mergents &#187;. OpenSourceCinema propose ainsi une s&#233;rie de contenus de r&#233;f&#233;rence que des r&#233;alisateurs peuvent utiliser et remixer avec leur propres contenus, tout cela dans le cadre d'une licence Creative Commons. Reconnaissant que son mandat doit prendre en compte les avanc&#233;es techniques, l'ONF est conscient de l'importance d'int&#233;grer le Web participatif dans ses activit&#233;s. Ces deux exemples montrent que l'ONF avance d&#233;j&#224; dans la direction d'une int&#233;gration du Web participatif dans le d&#233;roulement de ses activit&#233;s, une fa&#231;on pour cette organisation de favoriser la conversation entre les auteurs, leurs &#339;uvres et les utilisateurs, et aussi une opportunit&#233; d'offrir des plateformes d'expression pour des auteurs et r&#233;alisateurs &#171; en &#233;mergence &#187;.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt; &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Influencer les industries culturelles pour promouvoir les UGC&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Comment vont faire les industries culturelles pour s'adapter au nouvel univers num&#233;rique habit&#233; de plus en plus par les UGC alors que l'usage intensif des dispositifs d'&#233;change de fichiers peer to peer (p2p) les a d&#233;j&#224; bien &#233;branl&#233;es ? Michel Gensollen, &#233;conomiste &#224; l'ENST [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-29&quot; name=&quot;nh4-29&quot; id=&quot;nh4-29&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[29] &#201;cole nationale sup&#233;rieure des t&#233;l&#233;communications, Paris, France : (...)' &gt;29&lt;/a&gt;], r&#233;pond en &#233;voquant le besoin de consid&#233;rer les industries culturelles sous leur pluralit&#233; sectorielle : &#171; Les industries culturelles (industries des contenus) sont diverses : dans le cas de la musique, &#224; c&#244;t&#233; des &#233;diteurs qui g&#232;rent des droits et tirent leurs revenus de la propri&#233;t&#233; intellectuelle, il existe des organisateurs de spectacles vivants et des petits labels ind&#233;pendants proches des auteurs. Internet et les r&#233;seaux peer to peer remettent en cause la propri&#233;t&#233; intellectuelle et les droits acquis, ce qui va contre les int&#233;r&#234;ts &#224; court terme des &#233;diteurs mais ouvre de nouvelles possibilit&#233;s pour d'autres acteurs. &#187; [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-30&quot; name=&quot;nh4-30&quot; id=&quot;nh4-30&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[30] Entrevue r&#233;alis&#233;e par courriel avec Michel Gensollen	(avril (...)' &gt;30&lt;/a&gt;] Ce ne serait donc pas l'ensemble du mod&#232;le des industries culturelles qui souffrira &#233;ventuellement des effets des UGC mais les secteurs qui ne sauront pas comment tirer profit de cette &#233;volution.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Il faut aussi porter une attention particuli&#232;re au rapport de force qui se construit actuellement entre les utilisateurs et les cr&#233;ateurs, et s'assurer de son &#233;quilibre [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-31&quot; name=&quot;nh4-31&quot; id=&quot;nh4-31&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[31] Ibid. Gensollen affirme que &#171; La technique permet le d&#233;veloppement de (...)' &gt;31&lt;/a&gt;]. Selon Michel Gensollen, il &#171; convient de veiller &#224; assurer une continuit&#233; entre les uns et les autres. Des l&#233;gislations maladroites pourraient au contraire les opposer, dans le but louable de prot&#233;ger les professionnels, en imposant des crit&#232;res pr&#233;cis pour les pratiques professionnelles. &#187; L'intervention des gouvernements ne devrait donc pas se limiter &#224; une protection des modes de production et de diffusion des contenus provenant de la fili&#232;re culturelle (cr&#233;ateurs et interm&#233;diaires) mais devrait rechercher un &#233;quilibre nouveau entre les diff&#233;rents groupes d'acteurs du Web participatif.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Devant la remise en cause des mod&#232;les d'affaires des industries culturelles du fait de la pr&#233;sence des UGC, &#171; les activit&#233;s d'aide &#224; la cr&#233;ation et &#224; la production de la demande (formation, mise &#224; disposition de logiciels, sites promotionnels...) au contraire, vont b&#233;n&#233;ficier du d&#233;veloppement des contenus &#233;labor&#233;s ou transform&#233;s par des amateurs. D'o&#249; une transformation des industries culturelles, de la mise en valeur des droits d'auteur vers la fourniture des moyens de la cr&#233;ation. &#187; [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-32&quot; name=&quot;nh4-32&quot; id=&quot;nh4-32&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[32] Gensollen, Ibid.' &gt;32&lt;/a&gt;] En d'autres mots, de nouveaux acteurs apparaissent au sein des industries culturelles pendant que d'autres s'adaptent aux besoins des utilisateurs et cr&#233;ateurs des UGC.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Parmi les gestes &#224; poser par les gouvernements pour g&#233;rer cet &#233;quilibre pr&#233;caire, on peut &#233;voquer des probl&#233;matiques &#224; caract&#232;re juridique qui requi&#232;rent des r&#233;ponses cibl&#233;es et diversifi&#233;es : un cadre l&#233;gal flexible pour le d&#233;veloppement des UGC, un renforcement du Fair Dealing [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-33&quot; name=&quot;nh4-33&quot; id=&quot;nh4-33&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[33] &#171; L&amp;#39;utilisation &#233;quitable (fair dealing) est un concept pr&#233;sent (...)' &gt;33&lt;/a&gt;] pour les utilisateurs des UGC, des DRM [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-34&quot; name=&quot;nh4-34&quot; id=&quot;nh4-34&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[34] Il s&amp;#39;agit des &#171; mesures techniques de protection &#187; (Digital (...)' &gt;34&lt;/a&gt;] qui alloueraient un espace pour le Fair Dealing, des mod&#232;les flexibles de licences d'utilisation des UGC (Creative Commons ou autres).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt; &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Repenser la place des UGC dans le cadre des industries culturelles : la proposition de l'OFCOM &lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Le d&#233;bat qu'a lanc&#233; l'organisme britannique de r&#233;gulation des t&#233;l&#233;communications (OFCOM) avec la publication r&#233;cente de A New Approach to Public Service Content in the Digital Media Age [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-35&quot; name=&quot;nh4-35&quot; id=&quot;nh4-35&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[35] Voir http://www.openmedianetwork.org.uk/anewapproach/A_New_Approach.pdf' &gt;35&lt;/a&gt;] suit une longue r&#233;flexion de cet organisme (initi&#233;e en 2005) sur le r&#244;le et la place du service public de radiodiffusion (Public Service Broadcasting) face &#224; l'&#233;volution des technologies et de la consommation des contenus m&#233;diatiques par la population. L'OFCOM a pris note de l'&#233;volution des usages dans le secteur des UGC et propose de donner &#224; ces derniers un espace unique au sein des industries culturelles. Plut&#244;t que de s'en tenir &#224; une approche r&#233;active, l'OFCOM propose qu'un nouveau secteur du service public soit vou&#233; au d&#233;veloppement des UGC, &#224; l'instar du service public d&#233;di&#233; &#224; la radiodiffusion (BBC, Channel 4).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Ce nouveau secteur d&#233;di&#233; au UGC serait appel&#233; le Public Service Publisher (PSP) et r&#233;unirait toutes les formes de collaboration et d'&#233;change bas&#233;es sur le mod&#232;le du&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Web participatif [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-36&quot; name=&quot;nh4-36&quot; id=&quot;nh4-36&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[36] Citons le rapport de l&amp;#39;OFCOM : &#171; The PSP has always been (...)' &gt;36&lt;/a&gt;]. L'OFCOM prend note de l'&#233;volution rapide des m&#233;dias num&#233;riques, consid&#233;rant que pour assurer un d&#233;veloppement pertinent des UGC, il appara&#238;t n&#233;cessaire de permettre le d&#233;veloppement de cadres r&#233;glementaires et &#233;conomiques originaux et appropri&#233;s [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-37&quot; name=&quot;nh4-37&quot; id=&quot;nh4-37&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[37] Ibid : &#171; We are living in a world in which viewer behaviour is (...)' &gt;37&lt;/a&gt;]. Enfin, l'&#201;tat doit jouer un r&#244;le important d'incubateur afin de permettre au secteur des UGC de prendre toute sa place face aux autres secteurs des industries culturelles.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;La proposition britannique de cr&#233;er une structure unique pour d&#233;velopper le secteur des UGC peut &#233;tonner, consid&#233;rant que les gouvernements ont jou&#233; jusqu'ici un r&#244;le limit&#233; dans le d&#233;veloppement du Web participatif. Pour l'OFCOM, en revanche, il faut placer la question des UGC dans le contexte plus g&#233;n&#233;ral des transformations du syst&#232;me de production, de diffusion et de consommation d'une fourchette &#233;largie de contenus, aussi bien via des plateformes traditionnelles telles que la t&#233;l&#233;vision et la radio que sur Internet. Les auditoires d'aujourd'hui - et les jeunes en particulier -
ont des habitudes de consommation bien plus morcel&#233;es qu'il y a 20 ans, l'arriv&#233;e du Web participatif et des plateformes mobiles exer&#231;ant des pressions encore plus fortes sur le type de contenus consomm&#233;s [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-38&quot; name=&quot;nh4-38&quot; id=&quot;nh4-38&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[38] Ibid : &#171; Television is now part of a rich and exciting digital media (...)' &gt;38&lt;/a&gt;]. Conscient de l'importance croissante des UGC dans les nouvelles habitudes des utilisateurs et surtout de la t&#226;che difficile des services publics de diffusion &#224; produire ce genre de contenus, l'OFCOM argue qu'il faut faire une place &#224; ces nouvelles plateformes de cr&#233;ation et de diffusion et garantir ainsi les principes de qualit&#233; et de diversit&#233; des contenus [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-39&quot; name=&quot;nh4-39&quot; id=&quot;nh4-39&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[39] En fait, l&amp;#39;un des co-auteurs de l&amp;#39;&#233;tude, Andrew (...)' &gt;39&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;La question centrale de l'&#233;tude de l'OFCOM &#233;tait de savoir pourquoi l'&#201;tat britannique se devait d'intervenir dans la mise en place d'une telle structure. La r&#233;ponse rel&#232;ve d'une double comparaison. La premi&#232;re comparaison est historique :&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;l'&#201;tat britannique a toujours soutenu et soutient encore les diff&#233;rentes cha&#238;nes publiques (t&#233;l&#233;vision et radio). L'autre dimension comparative est &#233;conomique : le souci de s'assurer que les avantages sociaux et &#233;conomiques du d&#233;veloppement des contenus num&#233;riques soient &#233;quitablement redistribu&#233;s &#224; travers la population, en particulier quand il s'agit de garantir la qualit&#233; et la diversit&#233; de ces contenus [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-40&quot; name=&quot;nh4-40&quot; id=&quot;nh4-40&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[40] Ibid. (p.5) : &#171; the factors that continue to drive intervention in (...)' &gt;40&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;L'OFCOM entrevoit le PSP comme une instance commanditaire assurant la promotion des UGC plut&#244;t que comme un producteur de premi&#232;re ligne. En cela, il se veut diff&#233;rent de l'approche de la BBC qui produit un pourcentage &#233;lev&#233; de sa programmation t&#233;l&#233;. Les contenus pr&#233;sent&#233;s par le PSP devraient &#234;tre r&#233;gis par des licences de type share-aware [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-41&quot; name=&quot;nh4-41&quot; id=&quot;nh4-41&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[41] Le share aware est une formulation anglaise du principe selon lequel (...)' &gt;41&lt;/a&gt;] ou des licences libres, afin de susciter la cr&#233;ation et permettre la r&#233;utilisation des contenus mis en ligne par les utilisateurs. Le PSP fonctionnerait selon un mod&#232;le non lucratif bien qu'il permette aux utilisateurs d'utiliser les contenus mis en ligne &#224; des fins commerciales. Effectivement, l'OFCOM est ouvert &#224; la possibilit&#233; que des utilisateurs commercialisent leurs cr&#233;ations si une partie des revenus ainsi g&#233;n&#233;r&#233;s revient au PSP et au producteur initial du contenu [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-42&quot; name=&quot;nh4-42&quot; id=&quot;nh4-42&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[42] On donne peu de d&#233;tails dans l&amp;#39;&#233;tude de l&amp;#39;OFCOM (...)' &gt;42&lt;/a&gt;].
Enfin, les contenus cr&#233;&#233;s pour le PSP pourraient &#234;tre distribu&#233; sur diff&#233;rentes plateformes incluant les diffuseurs traditionnels (t&#233;l&#233;vision). C'est un aspect &lt;br /&gt;
important du mandat du PSP : celui d'un promoteur et distributeur de contenus UGC &#224; travers les relations que l'organisation aura progressivement d&#233;velopp&#233;es avec les diffuseurs, les fournisseurs d'acc&#232;s Internet et autres intervenants de l'industrie des contenus.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Les contenus financ&#233;s par le PSP seraient vari&#233;s et &#224; forte connotation culturelle. Dans le secteur du th&#233;&#226;tre par exemple, Andrew Chitty propose le d&#233;veloppement de nouvelles formes th&#233;&#226;trales aussi bien au niveau de l'oralit&#233; que de l'exp&#233;rience sensorielle ou visuelle [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-43&quot; name=&quot;nh4-43&quot; id=&quot;nh4-43&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[43] Voir http://www.openmedianetwork.org.uk/contentandvision/story.htm' &gt;43&lt;/a&gt;]. Le PSP pourrait jouer un r&#244;le important dans le d&#233;veloppement de l'industrie du jeu (gaming), en particulier l'utilisation des mondes immersifs (m&#233;taverses) dans le secteur du ludo&#233;ducatif. C'est la proposition d'une co-auteure de l'&#233;tude, Aleks Krotoski, qui consid&#232;re le PSP comme une plateforme id&#233;ale pour la diss&#233;mination des savoirs-faire &#224; travers des licences ouvertes ou open source [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-44&quot; name=&quot;nh4-44&quot; id=&quot;nh4-44&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[44] Voir http://www.openmedianetwork.org.uk/contentandvision/play.htm' &gt;44&lt;/a&gt;]. Jennie Winhall propose, pour sa part, que le PSP puisse agir comme un arbitre neutre face aux initiatives UGC qui requi&#232;rent l'intervention de tiers pour g&#233;rer et faciliter les rapports entre participants [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-45&quot; name=&quot;nh4-45&quot; id=&quot;nh4-45&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[45] Voir http://www.openmedianetwork.org.uk/contentandvision/act.htm' &gt;45&lt;/a&gt;]. Une autre participante, Jemima Rellie, abonde dans le sens d'un PSP au service de la culture et des arts, en particulier les capacit&#233;s de cette structure &#224; faciliter l'acc&#232;s et la participation des utilisateurs &#224; des contenus distribu&#233;s [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb4-46&quot; name=&quot;nh4-46&quot; id=&quot;nh4-46&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[46] Voir http://www.openmedianetwork.org.uk/contentandvision/inspire.htm' &gt;46&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Le PSP se con&#231;oit ainsi comme un autre mod&#232;le d'intervention gouvernementale, d'une nature plus interventionniste et dynamique. Cette approche se veut globale et situe la production et la diffusion des UGC dans la sph&#232;re des services publics. L'OFCOM pr&#233;sente cette instance de promotion des UGC, enti&#232;rement ax&#233;e sur le potentiel du Web participatif, comme un dispositif compl&#233;mentaire aux autres instances de diffusion culturelle plus traditionnelles. Le d&#233;bat reste encore ouvert sur la faisabilit&#233; technique et conceptuelle d'un tel projet et sur sa capacit&#233; &#224; f&#233;d&#233;rer diff&#233;rentes expressions culturelles du Web participatif.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt; &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Questions et pistes de r&#233;flexion&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Notre question de d&#233;part &#233;tait de savoir comment les usages du Web participatif -
dispositif associ&#233; d'abord &#224; l'univers mondialis&#233; du divertissement - pouvaient &lt;br /&gt;
contribuer &#224; une meilleure participation des usagers-citoyens &#224; la vie d&#233;mocratique. Cette potentialit&#233; existe mais ne va pas de soi. Les gouvernements devront favoriser l'acc&#232;s et l'appropriation de ces nouveaux outils informatiques par des publics &#233;largis s'ils veulent rendre possible ce passage d'un univers de la consommation &#224; celui de la citoyennet&#233;. Par ailleurs, parmi les groupes d'usagers, il ne faudrait pas que s'&#233;largisse le foss&#233; entre des &#171; amateurs devenus experts &#187; et des &#171; amateurs restant passifs &#187;. Les gouvernements devront imaginer de nouvelles m&#233;thodes pour g&#233;rer ce nouvel univers de contenus num&#233;riques dans le cadre &#233;largi du d&#233;veloppement des industries culturelles.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Les usages de ces nouveaux outils num&#233;riques doivent contribuer &#224; d&#233;velopper un esprit critique chez les utilisateurs - c'est-&#224;-dire une capacit&#233; &#224; se distancier des contenus m&#233;diatiques - qui devrait favoriser le d&#233;veloppement d'une vie citoyenne et d&#233;mocratique.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;L'&#233;mergence du Web participatif favoriserait le recours &#224; de nouveaux m&#233;canismes pour s&#233;lectionner l'information m&#233;diatique : la pr&#233;sence massive de ces &#171; m&#233;dias individuels de communication de masse &#187; entra&#238;ne la chute d'un certain nombre de mod&#232;les &#233;ditoriaux auxquels les m&#233;dias traditionnels nous avaient habitu&#233;s. Ainsi, la cr&#233;dibilit&#233; des commentateurs et &#233;ditorialistes patent&#233;s est aujourd'hui parfois remise en cause - &#224; tort ou &#224; raison - par les utilisateurs du Web participatif qui ont acc&#232;s de mani&#232;re instantan&#233;e &#224; des centaines de lectures possibles et h&#233;t&#233;rog&#232;nes d'une m&#234;me question d'actualit&#233;. Les questions &#233;thiques les plus vives concernent la cr&#233;dibilit&#233; de ces UGC en mati&#232;re d'information publique : par quels m&#233;canismes pouvons-nous &#234;tre assur&#233;s que les informations qui circulent sont cr&#233;dibles, fiables, v&#233;rifi&#233;es ? Et comment &#233;valuer la qualit&#233; et la rigueur dans le traitement de ces nouvelles informations num&#233;riques ? Il appara&#238;t n&#233;cessaire de r&#233;aliser des recherches rigoureuses et ind&#233;pendantes pour mieux conna&#238;tre ce que font effectivement les utilisateurs avec ces nouveaux dispositifs num&#233;riques.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_156 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right; width:99px;'&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/fr/&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;&lt;img src='http://www.voxinternet.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L99xH33_logo_CC-48-ba3a9.gif' width='99' height='33' alt=&quot;&quot; style='height:33px;width:99px;' class='' /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;hr /&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_notes'&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-1&quot; name=&quot;nb4-1&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-1&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;] Voir Anthony Giddens, Les cons&#233;quences de la modernit&#233;, L'Harmattan, Paris, 1994.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-2&quot; name=&quot;nb4-2&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-2&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;] Voir le r&#233;cent num&#233;ro th&#233;matique de la revue Herm&#232;s, 47 (CNRS &#233;ditions, Paris, 2007) portant sur les nouvelles formes de la parole publique.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-3&quot; name=&quot;nb4-3&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-3&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;] Dayan, Daniel (2000), &#171; T&#233;l&#233;vision, le presque-public &#187;, R&#233;seaux, 100, p. 427-456 ; Livingstone, Sonia (2004), &#171; Du rapport entre audiences et publics &#187;, R&#233;seaux, 126, p. 17-55 ; Proulx, Serge (1998), &#233;d. Accus&#233; de r&#233;ception : le t&#233;l&#233;spectateur construit par les sciences sociales, Presses de l'Universit&#233; Laval, Qu&#233;bec et L'Harmattan, Paris,&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-4&quot; name=&quot;nb4-4&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-4&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;] Chalvon-Demersay, Sabine (1998), &#171; La mesure du public : approche g&#233;n&#233;alogique de l'audience t&#233;l&#233;visuelle &#187;, Quaderni, 35, p. 45-51.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-5&quot; name=&quot;nb4-5&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-5&quot;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;] Livingstone, Sonia (2004), &#171; Du rapport entre audiences et publics &#187;, R&#233;seaux, 126, p. 17-55.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-6&quot; name=&quot;nb4-6&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-6&quot;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;] Bardini, T., S. Proulx, D. B&#233;langer (2000), &#171; Des nouvelles de l'interacteur : ph&#233;nom&#232;nes de convergence entre la t&#233;l&#233;vision et Internet &#187;, Soci&#233;t&#233;s et Repr&#233;sentations, 9, Paris, 2000, p. 161-180.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-7&quot; name=&quot;nb4-7&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-7&quot;&gt;7&lt;/a&gt;] Je pr&#233;senterai dans les pages qui suivent certaines th&#233;matiques d&#233;velopp&#233;es collectivement par une &#233;quipe de recherche de iFact inc. (Canada) coordonn&#233;e par David Santelli et compos&#233;e de Nasser Boumenna, Sabine Kerner, Jean-Michel Cornu et Serge Proulx. Ce travail financ&#233; par le Minist&#232;re du Patrimoine canadien n'engage que les auteurs du collectif et non le Minist&#232;re f&#233;d&#233;ral canadien. Le texte des prochaines sections est donc le produit d'une &#233;criture collective.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-8&quot; name=&quot;nb4-8&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-8&quot;&gt;8&lt;/a&gt;] Les d&#233;bats au sein de l'OCDE traduisent les ambivalences entre des &#201;tats qui pensent que les UGC n&#233;cessitent des politiques nouvelles, plus adapt&#233;es aux nouveaux usages et ceux qui consid&#232;rent que les corpus l&#233;gaux et r&#233;glementaires actuels sont suffisants pour faire face &#224; l'arriv&#233;e des UGC.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-9&quot; name=&quot;nb4-9&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-9&quot;&gt;9&lt;/a&gt;] http://www.ofcom.org.uk/&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-10&quot; name=&quot;nb4-10&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-10&quot;&gt;10&lt;/a&gt;] Voir http://www.collectionscanada.ca/cdis/012033-611-f.html&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-11&quot; name=&quot;nb4-11&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-11&quot;&gt;11&lt;/a&gt;] Cette session s'est tenue le 9 mai 2006 et l'on a pr&#233;sent&#233; aux participants le document de r&#233;flexion dont le lien est indiqu&#233; ici : http://www.collectionscanada.ca/scin/012033-905-f.html&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-12&quot; name=&quot;nb4-12&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-12&quot;&gt;12&lt;/a&gt;] Citons par exemple : &#171; On se rend de plus en plus compte que les utilisateurs ne veulent pas seulement trouver de l'information : ils veulent pouvoir utiliser et r&#233;utiliser cette information, interagir avec celle-ci (et avec d'autres utilisateurs), la manier, formuler des commentaires &#224; son sujet, la reformater en fonction de leurs propres besoins et la retravailler pour cr&#233;er du contenu nouveau. C'est la prise en compte de ces aspects qui caract&#233;rise... la deuxi&#232;me g&#233;n&#233;ration du Web, ax&#233;e sur les services, la collaboration et le partage. &#187;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-13&quot; name=&quot;nb4-13&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-13&quot;&gt;13&lt;/a&gt;] Ibid.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-14&quot; name=&quot;nb4-14&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-14&quot;&gt;14&lt;/a&gt;] La notion d'acc&#232;s libre peut &#234;tre interpr&#233;t&#233; de fa&#231;on extensive, incluant les probl&#233;matiques du haut d&#233;bit, de la neutralit&#233; des r&#233;seaux, d'interop&#233;rabilit&#233; des plateformes et des m&#233;tadonn&#233;es. Nous discutons ici des aspects juridiques et l&#233;gaux de cette notion.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-15&quot; name=&quot;nb4-15&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-15&quot;&gt;15&lt;/a&gt;] Voir http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/60/51/37985757.pdf Citons Michael Geist qui appelle les gouvernements &#224; faire leur part mais aussi certains secteurs des industries culturelles tels ceux du livre, du disque ou de la t&#233;l&#233;vision : &#171; Governments can also play an important role by improving access to the content they control or help to fund. There are a surprising number of possibilities, each of which can be implemented at minimal cost and without new legislation : a) the elimination of crown copyright, the archaic rules that grants government control over taxpayer-funded work ; b) the introduction of open access requirements for publicly-funded research ; c) the establishment of new incentives in book publishing and television production funding programs to encourage open business models, and : d) the repositioning of public broadcaster content by adopting open licenses that invite the public to remix the content to tell their own stories. &#187; Nous aborderons ces deux derni&#232;res propositions dans la suite du pr&#233;sent texte.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-16&quot; name=&quot;nb4-16&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-16&quot;&gt;16&lt;/a&gt;] http://researchknowledge.ca/&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-17&quot; name=&quot;nb4-17&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-17&quot;&gt;17&lt;/a&gt;] Voir http://www.collectionscanada.ca/scin/012033-905-f.html La demande pour de tels contenus est en augmentation constante. Citons : &#171; Mais dans le contexte du Web ouvert, le mouvement public g&#233;n&#233;ral en faveur du contenu librement accessible a explos&#233;. Les utilisateurs, habilit&#233;s &#224; cr&#233;er du contenu et &#224; y contribuer directement par l'entremise des fonds communs du Web mondial, choisissent en masse de profiter de cette possibilit&#233;. Si cette tendance a d'abord pris la forme d'une croissance rapide du nombre de sites Web personnels, on observe maintenant une augmentation des blogs, des Wikis et d'autres m&#233;dias directs. De plus en plus, l'utilisateur est &#233;galement cr&#233;ateur. Or, ce genre d'utilisateur est g&#233;n&#233;ralement en faveur de l'ouverture. &#187;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-18&quot; name=&quot;nb4-18&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-18&quot;&gt;18&lt;/a&gt;] Voir http://www.collectionscanada.ca/scin/012033-905-f.html&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-19&quot; name=&quot;nb4-19&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-19&quot;&gt;19&lt;/a&gt;] http://archives.radio-canada.ca&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-20&quot; name=&quot;nb4-20&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-20&quot;&gt;20&lt;/a&gt;] www.onf.ca&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-21&quot; name=&quot;nb4-21&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-21&quot;&gt;21&lt;/a&gt;] L'utilisateur a acc&#232;s &#224; des archives choisis par la SRC mais il n'y a pas de v&#233;ritables outils d'interaction mis &#224; disposition, si ce n'est un fil RSS et un signet personnel.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-22&quot; name=&quot;nb4-22&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-22&quot;&gt;22&lt;/a&gt;] Selon St&#233;phanie Paquette, directrice des archives num&#233;ris&#233;es et r&#233;gions, SRC (entrevue r&#233;alis&#233;e le 12 avril 2007), il existe un d&#233;fi organisationnel pos&#233; par les UGC dans le contexte d'une organisation qui se doit de fournir &#224; ses audiences, vu son mandat, des programmes et des contenus de qualit&#233;. La participation des citoyens &#224; l'&#233;laboration d'une partie des contenus diffus&#233;s sur SRC est une r&#233;alit&#233; complexe et la SRC ne voit pas encore comment elle pourrait facilement appuyer cette tendance.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-23&quot; name=&quot;nb4-23&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-23&quot;&gt;23&lt;/a&gt;] La SRC n&#233;gocie constamment avec diff&#233;rentes soci&#233;t&#233;s de gestion de droits au Qu&#233;bec et au Canada pour lib&#233;rer les droits Web de milliers de documents d'archives. C'est un travail compliqu&#233; mais n&#233;cessaire pour pouvoir mettre &#224; la disposition du public des archives qui sommeillent dans les vo&#251;tes de nos soci&#233;t&#233;s d'&#201;tat.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-24&quot; name=&quot;nb4-24&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-24&quot;&gt;24&lt;/a&gt;] Le mandat de l'ONF &#171; consiste &#224; produire et distribuer des oeuvres audiovisuelles distinctives et audacieuses, qui refl&#232;tent la diversit&#233; culturelle et qui pr&#233;sentent au Canada et au reste du monde, un point de vue authentiquement canadien. &#187; (plan strat&#233;gique 2002-2006).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-25&quot; name=&quot;nb4-25&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-25&quot;&gt;25&lt;/a&gt;] Entrevue r&#233;alis&#233;e avec Jo&#235;l Pomerleau et St&#233;phanie Barker.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-26&quot; name=&quot;nb4-26&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-26&quot;&gt;26&lt;/a&gt;] http://citoyen.onf.ca/onf/info ?aid=4961&amp;eid=4962&amp;atid=7&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-27&quot; name=&quot;nb4-27&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-27&quot;&gt;27&lt;/a&gt;] &#201;tudiants canadiens appartenant &#224; l'un des trois groupes cibl&#233;s par le Programme d'&#233;quit&#233; en mati&#232;re d'emploi (autochtones, membres des minorit&#233;s visibles, personnes vivant avec un handicap).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-28&quot; name=&quot;nb4-28&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-28&quot;&gt;28&lt;/a&gt;] www.opensourcecinema.org&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-29&quot; name=&quot;nb4-29&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-29&quot;&gt;29&lt;/a&gt;] &#201;cole nationale sup&#233;rieure des t&#233;l&#233;communications, Paris, France : www.enst.fr&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-30&quot; name=&quot;nb4-30&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-30&quot;&gt;30&lt;/a&gt;] Entrevue r&#233;alis&#233;e par courriel avec Michel Gensollen	(avril	2007) concernant les effets
&#233;conomiques possibles des UGC sur les industries culturelles.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-31&quot; name=&quot;nb4-31&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-31&quot;&gt;31&lt;/a&gt;] Ibid. Gensollen affirme que &#171; La technique permet le d&#233;veloppement de productions amateurs de qualit&#233; et le Web offre des moyens de promotion bon marche : les barri&#232;res &#224; l'entr&#233;e sont donc fortement r&#233;duites. Le contenu cr&#233;&#233; par les usagers accompagne naturellement la remise en cause de la propri&#233;t&#233; intellectuelle : la copie priv&#233;e et l'&#233;change P2P ont montr&#233; ex post les limites de la protection ; le contenu amateur met en &#233;vidence l'&#233;volution de la propri&#233;t&#233; intellectuelle. &#187;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-32&quot; name=&quot;nb4-32&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-32&quot;&gt;32&lt;/a&gt;] Gensollen, Ibid.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-33&quot; name=&quot;nb4-33&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-33&quot;&gt;33&lt;/a&gt;] &#171; L'utilisation &#233;quitable (fair dealing) est un concept pr&#233;sent dans la l&#233;gislation et la jurisprudence de nombreux pays du Commonwealth. Ce concept limite le champ d'application du copyright en balisant certaines exceptions &#224; celui-ci, afin de maintenir un juste &#233;quilibre entre les droits des titulaires du droit d'auteur et les int&#233;r&#234;ts des utilisateurs. L'origine de l'utilisation &#233;quitable est la common law bien que les exceptions qui le composent soient maintenant statutaires. &#187; (selon Wikip&#233;dia, consult&#233; le 27 ao&#251;t 2007).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-34&quot; name=&quot;nb4-34&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-34&quot;&gt;34&lt;/a&gt;] Il s'agit des &#171; mesures techniques de protection &#187; (Digital Rights Management systems - DRM) qui permettent de contr&#244;ler a priori la consultation d'une oeuvre num&#233;rique, par exemple, en limitant le nombre de lectures possibles d'une &#339;uvre musicale ou l'installation multiple d'un logiciel propri&#233;taire. La nouvelle loi fran&#231;aise a confi&#233; &#224; une &#171; Autorit&#233; de r&#233;gulation des mesures techniques &#187; la gestion de ces mesures en m&#234;me temps que la responsabilit&#233; d'assurer une interop&#233;rabilit&#233; entre syst&#232;mes de lecture des &#339;uvres prot&#233;g&#233;es par des DRM, la tendance dans l'industrie &#233;tant toutefois aujourd'hui d'abandonner les DRM du fait qu'elles pourront toujours &#234;tre contourn&#233;es par les hackers. Voir : Serge Proulx et St&#233;phane Couture (2007), &#171; Nouvelles technologies de l'information et de la communication : Conjoncture 2006-2007 &#187; in &#201;tat du Monde 2008, La D&#233;couverte, Paris, &#224; para&#238;tre.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-35&quot; name=&quot;nb4-35&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-35&quot;&gt;35&lt;/a&gt;] Voir http://www.openmedianetwork.org.uk/anewapproach/A_New_Approach.pdf&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-36&quot; name=&quot;nb4-36&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-36&quot;&gt;36&lt;/a&gt;] Citons le rapport de l'OFCOM : &#171; The PSP has always been conceived of as a new media response to the challenges of digital media. It would meet public purposes using the tools, technology, insights and culture of digital media, both in production and distribution. As consumer behaviour changes rapidly and online content moves more into the mainstream, it becomes more important to consider afresh the style, form and substance of content which will inform, educate and entertain in the multimedia digital age. &#187; (p.7).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-37&quot; name=&quot;nb4-37&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-37&quot;&gt;37&lt;/a&gt;] Ibid : &#171; We are living in a world in which viewer behaviour is changing rapidly - in recent years, the consumption of most television content has moved from analogue onto digital media platforms. Moreover, our understanding of what is meant by television is changing at the content, network and device levels. These changes have profound implications for the traditional broadcasting market, and for the future of the PSB system. This document explores these market changes, and suggests a particular response - the Public Service Publisher (PSP) - as part of a range of new ways to secure a strong and plural public service system for the future. &#187; (p.3).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-38&quot; name=&quot;nb4-38&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-38&quot;&gt;38&lt;/a&gt;] Ibid : &#171; Television is now part of a rich and exciting digital media landscape. Time and money spent on other communications technologies has grown rapidly and significantly, and consumers are increasingly accessing content on the internet and other digital media platforms...These developments are particularly prevalent amongst younger audiences, who are taking advantage of technological advances to change their approaches to content consumption to suit their particular needs. For younger audiences, the mobile phone is now the most important communications medium - not television, and the internet represents an increasing proportion of their communications activity. &#187; (p.4)&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-39&quot; name=&quot;nb4-39&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-39&quot;&gt;39&lt;/a&gt;] En fait, l'un des co-auteurs de l'&#233;tude, Andrew Chitty, affirme que m&#234;me si les entreprises traditionnelles de diffusion comme la BBC font des efforts importants pour int&#233;grer le ph&#233;nom&#232;ne UGC dans certains de leurs programmes et contenus, elles ne sont pas v&#233;ritablement &#233;quip&#233;es pour r&#233;ussir cette transition : &#171; The BBC and to a lesser extent Channel 4 are already grappling with what the evolution of the media landscape means for them as institutions ; the challenge to their core businesses as mass media players is large enough. Whilst they are both also responding to the potential of new media technologies, they are not uniquely focussed on this area. In addition, their institutional structures, priorities and talent bases are not clearly aligned to the new, participative model. &#187; (p.3).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-40&quot; name=&quot;nb4-40&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-40&quot;&gt;40&lt;/a&gt;] Ibid. (p.5) : &#171; the factors that continue to drive intervention in linear television - namely that public service content continues to deliver economic and social benefits that would not be realized without intervention - are also relevant for wider digital media. &#187;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-41&quot; name=&quot;nb4-41&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-41&quot;&gt;41&lt;/a&gt;] Le share aware est une formulation anglaise du principe selon lequel un utilisateur ne peut imposer des restrictions l&#233;gales sur une &#339;uvre qu'il a retouch&#233;e si le contenu original n'en poss&#233;dait pas.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-42&quot; name=&quot;nb4-42&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-42&quot;&gt;42&lt;/a&gt;] On donne peu de d&#233;tails dans l'&#233;tude de l'OFCOM sur les aspects commerciaux li&#233;s &#224; la r&#233;utilisation et &#224; la vente des contenus.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-43&quot; name=&quot;nb4-43&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-43&quot;&gt;43&lt;/a&gt;] Voir http://www.openmedianetwork.org.uk/contentandvision/story.htm&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-44&quot; name=&quot;nb4-44&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-44&quot;&gt;44&lt;/a&gt;] Voir http://www.openmedianetwork.org.uk/contentandvision/play.htm&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-45&quot; name=&quot;nb4-45&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-45&quot;&gt;45&lt;/a&gt;] Voir http://www.openmedianetwork.org.uk/contentandvision/act.htm&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh4-46&quot; name=&quot;nb4-46&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 4-46&quot;&gt;46&lt;/a&gt;] Voir http://www.openmedianetwork.org.uk/contentandvision/inspire.htm&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
		</content:encoded>


		

	</item>



	<item>
		<title>Technologies of the Common : Toward an Ethics of Collaborative Constitution</title>
		<link>http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?article172</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?article172</guid>
		<dc:date>2007-10-15T22:00:00Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		

<category domain="http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?rubrique14">L'Internet des objets : communication et identit&#233;s</category>

		<dc:subject>Article scientifique</dc:subject>

		<description>The arrival and generalization of social software - often subsumed under the misnomer Web 2.0, conveniently (and in true new economy manner) obscuring decades of social innovation - was greeted with a wave of economic enthusiasm (new markets), as well as a corresponding sense of political possibility regarding remedies to the 'democracy deficit' of institutions of governance (e-democracy, e-inclusion, m2m/p2p as new model for public sphere communication). In the following, I will (...)

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The arrival and generalization of social software - often subsumed under the misnomer Web 2.0, conveniently (and in true new economy manner) obscuring decades of social innovation - was greeted with a wave of economic enthusiasm (new markets), as well as a corresponding sense of political possibility regarding remedies to the 'democracy deficit' of institutions of governance (e-democracy, e-inclusion, m2m/p2p as new model for public sphere communication). In the following, I will insist on a more comprehensive sense of social technologies as 'technologies of the common' that take seriously the return of political ontology and its engagement of the question of political constitution. Situated between social technologies and techniques of governance, 'technologies of the common' serves here as a heuristic device to explore differences and similarities of related processes of social constitution, and identify their relevance to the articulation of alternative modalities of governance. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb5-1&quot; name=&quot;nh5-1&quot; id=&quot;nh5-1&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[1] This essay was written in the context of a collaborative research (...)' &gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;h3 class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Europe/Culture/Economy as Mots d'Ordre in an Emergent Policy Regime &lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;In a move that illustrates the accelerating integration of culture into the creation of economic value, the EU has identified the &quot;economy of culture&quot; as a policy priority. The report&#8222;The Economy of Culture in Europe&#8220; commissioned by the EC in 2006 has initiated the political revaluation of the so-called Creative Industries (CI) across Europe. Following a 2007 decision by the European cultural ministers to establish the Creative Industries as a major topic of the German EU-Presidency, a conference on &#8220;Cultural and Creative Industries in Europe&#8221; was held in in May 2007.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Its conclusion, submitted to the Council of the European Union, relates this priority to the 2005 relaunch of the Lisbon Agenda (creation of growth and employment) and generally affirms the capacity of the cultural and creative sectors to serve as 'engines' of (sustainable) growth, employment, and innovation. In its Communication &quot;A European agenda for culture in a globalising world&quot;, the European Commission defines a cultural strategy for its institutions, its members states, as well as the cultural and creative sectors in terms of three priorities : the promotion of a) cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue, b) culture as a catalyts for creativity in the framework of the Lisbon strategy, and c) culture as a vital instrument in the EU's international relations. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb5-2&quot; name=&quot;nh5-2&quot; id=&quot;nh5-2&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[2] All policy documents are available online at .' &gt;2&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;While the optimism of these policy initiatives is not yet compromised by sobering analysis of the sustainability of an economy of culture defined in these terms, what is important to me here is that these documents describe an emergent policy regime. Despite the invocation of the Lisbon strategy and the generally assuring tone that establish the cultural and creative sectors at the centre of related policy formulations, many of the elements of this framework have yet to be definitively elaborated and therefore remain open to contestation and reappropriation.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;h3 class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;From Civil Society to Technologies of the Common &lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The controversial UN World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) 2003-5 was evidence of the extent to which the elements of this policy regime remain contested, especially the question of how different (mutually exclusive) concepts of creativity and innovation are to be institutionally articulated that were central to the Campaign for Communication Rights, as well as subsequent organizing efforts around an Access to Knowlegde Treaty (UN), a Development Mandate for the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), or the adoption of an Open Document Format (ODF) by the International Standards Organization (ISO).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;CRIS was a key 'civil society' dynamic that struggled to mediate between the intergovernmental logic of the summit and the non-governmental logic of social movements efforts outside the scope of civil society. I mention the campaign here to insist that we include 'civil society' in the list of mots d'ordre whose effectivity in the emergent policy regime should be explored rather than assumed as an a priori in our approaches to the (organizational) dynamic of non-governmentality and its (constitutive) effects.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The 'inclusion' of 'civil society' has been a central element of post-sovereign paradigms of diplomacy and governance (exemplified by the ambitious strategy of multistakeholderism of the WSIS, whose development involved members of CRIS) and indeed the main mechanism of democratization (to increase, for example, the accountability and transparency of intergovernmental institutions and processes). Yet the assumption that 'civil society' serves as primary vehicle of democratization fails to acknowledge the extent to which this capacity has been called into question by critiques of the idiom of representation and the subsequent attention to processes of (social) constitution that create the agency/subjectivity such invocations of civil society (must) take for granted. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb5-3&quot; name=&quot;nh5-3&quot; id=&quot;nh5-3&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[3] See Soenke Zehle, &quot;The Campaign for Communication Rights : After the (...)' &gt;3&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Instead, I want to introduce the notion of 'technologies of the common' to approach the modalities of collective refusal-defection-withdrawal that constitute a terrain of democracy outside the conceptual and organizational idiom of representation. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb5-4&quot; name=&quot;nh5-4&quot; id=&quot;nh5-4&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[4] See Soenke Zehle, &quot;Technologies du Commun&quot;, Vacarme 34 (Hiver 2006), (...)' &gt;4&lt;/a&gt;]
Conventional wisdom (canonical statement : Olson, The Logic of Collective Action) used to hold that diffuse interests are not represented because the costs to individuals of organising in large groups are not matched by the small gains for each individual. With the arrival of social software (Web 2.0), the cost of organizing (understood in the sense of interest aggregation) theoretically tends toward zero, and the explosion of sites bases on 'friendship' (i.e. a logic of affect rather than representation) does seem to suggest that one of the main effects of social software is an increase in the (collective) capacity for self-
organization. It does not come as a surprise that these applications have been greeted with both commercial enthusiasm (new markets) and democracy-theoretical relief (democracy deficit).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;They rise of such autonomous (if only in the sense of self-refential rather than overlapping) 'new publics', however, does not signal the possibility of a return to a homogenous, integrated public sphere and corresponding models of political communication, but simply make visible a fragmentation of the public sphere beyond representational remedies. What is at stake is therefore not (nonly) a greater efficiency and effectivity of the technologies of representation, but the rise of non-representational means that affect the production of subjectivity. In its most basic sense, this means that media are not primarily considered in representational terms but in terms of a constitutive role that suggests different modalities of government incommensurable with (and indeed invisible from within) the idiom of representation.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;In his analysis of The Revolutions of Capitalism, Lazzarato invokes Bakhtin to contend that &quot;[t]he relation between self and other must be understood neither as a relation between a subject and an object nor as a relation between subjects, but rather as an event-like relation between 'possible worlds'&quot; since &quot;[t]he other is neither an object nor a subject ; it is the expression of possible worlds&quot; (2007 : 102). To reconceptualize the relations between the living, resistance, and power on the basis of such an event-like relation between self and other rather than an ontology of the subject, Lazzarato turns to the 'techniques of government' initially introduced by Foucault as element of a comprehensive definition of power. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb5-5&quot; name=&quot;nh5-5&quot; id=&quot;nh5-5&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[5] Michel Foucault, &#8220;Deux essais sur le sujet et le pouvoir&#8221;, (...)' &gt;5&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;What intrigues Lazzarato about Foucault's definition of power is the latter's sense that power is primarily to be understood in terms of the capacity to control - constitute and define - the ways in which others may conduct themselves. Foucault surveys the constitutive elements of such a capacity often subsumed under a single definition : strategic relations, techniques of government, and relations of domination. Strategic relations are the means - &quot;infinitesimal, mobile, reversible, and unstable power games&quot; (ibid. 103) - of modifying asymmetrical power relations in an ongoing process ; relations of domination arrest such a process, crystallyzing (here : arresting) the freedom, fluidity, and reversibility of strategic relations by inscribing them within specific institutional forms (such as the trade union, the party, or state institutions).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Technologies or techniques of government are situated in an intermediate region between these two dynamics. Defined as ensemble of practices for the government of relation - to the self as well as others - , these technologies decide whether or not strategic relations remain open to the experimentation of subjectivations that escape states of domination (ibid. 104). &quot;Political action&quot;, Lazzarto concludes, &quot;must therefore concentrate on techniques of government&quot; (ibid.), and stress the creation of new techniques to govern strategic relations.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;It is the invention of new rules that &quot;increase the liberty, mobility, and reversibility of power games&quot; that lies at the heart of political action. Constructed collectively and cutting &quot;across strategic relations and states of domination transversally&quot; (ibid.), these rules are the preconditions - the conditions of possibility - of resistance, creation, and the experimentation of relationships. They offer relations &quot;a reversibility assured not by the transcendence of the law and of right, or by categorical statements on equality, but by the action of mobile and nomadic institutions such as coordinations&quot; and create a space &quot;'between' the microphysics of power and the institutions of domination [that] is propitious for a politics of becoming and creation, for the invention of new forms of subjectivation&quot; (105). This discussion leads us to an insistance on the primacy of protocols governing the modalities of social constitution - and establishes the conflictual process of their creation and recreation as a conflictual dynamic at the heart of the network society.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Castellsian network theory has very little to say on how the protocols that govern the network society, structure (cultural, economic, political) processes across the space of flows, and facilitate the transformation of the network state are defined. In his engagement with Castells, Felix Stalder has emphasized the work of Peter Drahos as exemplary in illustrating the extent to which the definition of such protocols (and the new governance regimes they define, enable, and sustain) can, after all, be mapped. Despite his interest in the rise of the network state (and save a passing references to the fact that networks are programmed by actors and institutions), Castells does not explore new governance regimes organized around the World Trade Organization (WTO) or the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and says little about the cross-sectoral (education, medicine, software, etc.) struggles for access and against proprietarization that are have arguably become a signature dynamic of conflict across network societies. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nb5-6&quot; name=&quot;nh5-6&quot; id=&quot;nh5-6&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title='[6] Felix Stalder, Manuel Castells : The Theory of the Network Society, (...)' &gt;6&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Yet Lazzarato makes clear that resistance to proprietarization is only one register of developing alternative techniques of government. For him, a new type of political event (already) occurred in Seattle, an event that illustrated the extent to which 'media' and its creative usage by a multiplicity of collective actors pointed beyond the idiom of representation (2003). These organizing efforts, triggered (but not limited to) by the resistance to proprietarization, illustrated and involved a reaffirmation of the capacity for collaborative constitution, hence a sense of expression in a sense much wider than those employed by cyperlibertarian critiques of corporate media control and a corresponding limitation of the freedom of expression to the freedom of speech. Lazzarato offers a much wider sense of expression, which inspires the reformulation of techniques of government as technologies of the common - the techniques of self-organization that are involved in processes of collaborative constitution. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;h3 class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Ethics beyond a Logic of Scarcity &lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Returning to the current conjunction of culture/economy from within the perspective sketched here, I want to suggest that the assumption of a fundamental (in)commensurability of these two domains - a commensurability which would then enable their integration in the name of growth and innovation, an incommensurability which would legitimate the invocation pfof cultural autonomy as main strategy of resistance - is what should be explored.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;While the tension between anthropological and commercial conceptions of culture (familiar since the work on the culture industries by members of the Frankfurt Institute of Social Research) is a well-established topic of inquiry in cultural criticism, the rise of the idiom of creative industries as core dynamic of an economy of culture has intensified the debate over how this tension should be (conceptually) articulated and (politically) addressed.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Organized opposition to the integration of culture into the economy, Lazzarato notes in his own reflections on the contemporary transformation of culture/creativity, often (and especially in France) follows a strategy of cultural exceptionalism. Yet instead of invoking the self-evidence of a (European) principle of cultural autonomy to substantiate and sustain the difference between culture and economy, he insists (with Tarde) that &quot;the modes of production, socialisation and appropriation of knowledge and of culture are different than the modes of production, socialisation and appropriation of wealth&quot; (2004).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Rather than reaffirming the autonomy of the cultura vis-a-vis the economic, strategies of resistance should acknowledge that the modes of production and socialisation peculiar to culture have come to determine the economy, a strategy that inevitably calls into question the (current) principles of political economy as it highlights their inability to comprehend the nature of the cultural object - or must transform them to subsume them under the logic of scarcity, hence the establishment of comprehensive intellectual property regimes to achieve artificial scarcity by way of the introduction of false origins (Digital Rights Management/DRM etc.). Because the principles at the core of regimes of intellectual property rights suggests that it is the anticipation of commercial returns that is considered the source of creativity (see WIPO), the proprietarization of information and knowledges is considered a core strategy of innovation. And if human rights are expected to contain/repair the excesses of the market economy, the demand (current example : EU vs China) to protect both human rights and IPR suggests that these are twin sides of a single currency in the expanding economy of culture.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Yet this is, then, one of the paradoxes of the information society : it is structured according to principles of governance that fail to acknowledge the nature of the very objects (knowledges) whose centrality is considered constitutive for its emergence. And because cultural objects do not have to become objects of exchange to be communicated (their usage is based on social communication rather than definitive alienation or destructive consumption, defying the logic of a political economy rooted in a dichotomous view of the relation between use and exchange), the evaluation of gains and losses calls for an ethics rather than markets (ibid.). Such an ethics does not (only) call into question processes of commodification, but argues that the economic significance of the cultural and creative sectors cannot even be apprehended from political economy as we know it. A comprehensive sense of how collaborative creation and constitution occur necessarily, in this view, opens itself to a different economic logic as well as a dynamic of constitution beyond the idiom of rights and representation.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;If we can no longer take the democratic (economic) subject for granted, how do we reflect on the production of agency/subjectivity in the network society more generally - and at which point does such an exploration become a matter of ethical practice ? To subordinate the cultural to the economic necessitates the imposition of the logic of scarcity. Resistance to this imposition cannot, Lazzarato argues, simply insist on a tradition of cultural autonomy that in fact reaffirms the essential difference of these domains ; instead, &quot;perhaps for the first time in humanity's history, artistic, intellectual and economic labour, on one hand, and the consumption of goods and appropriation of knowledge and beauty-values, on the other, demand to be regulated by the same ethics&quot; (ibid.). The question of ethics, then, cannot be raised as an afterthought, but bears a constitutive relation to the analysis of the culture/economy nexus, as it is directly related to the relational, inexhaustible nature of the cultural object. It remains to be see whether an ethical engagement of this relationality will yield 'better' (equal, just, sustainable etc.) modalities of governance, or simply signal an ungovernability that is in fact constutive of the dynamic we, perhaps too quickly, have come to subsume under 'culture/creativity'.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Works Cited&lt;/strong&gt; : &lt;br /&gt;
Bove, Arianna. &quot;Technologies of the Common.&quot; A critical ontology of the present : Foucault and the task of our times. (2007). &lt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.generation-online.org/other/acop/acopcontents.htm&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;http://www.generation-&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
online.org/other/acop/acopcontents.htm&gt;.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Foucault, Michel. &quot;The Subject and Power&quot;. Critical Inquiry 8.4 (Summer 1982). 777-795.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Lazzarato, Maurizio. &quot;European cultural tradition and the new forms of production and circulation of knowledge.&quot; Multitudes (16.01.2004). &lt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://multitudes.samizdat.net/&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;http://multitudes.samizdat.net&lt;/a&gt;&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Lazzarato, Maurizio. &quot;From The Revolutions of Capitalism.&quot; SubStance 36.1 (2007). 99-105.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Lazzarato, Maurizio. &quot;Struggle, Event, Media&quot;. (2003). &lt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.republicart.net/&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;http://www.republicart.net&lt;/a&gt;&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Stalder, Felix. Manuel Castells : The Theory of the Network Society. London : Polity Press, 2006.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Zehle, Soenke. &quot;Technologies du Commun&quot;. Vacarme 34 (Hiver 2006). 91-94.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Zehle, Soenke. &quot;The Campaign for Communication Rights : After the World Summit on the Information Society&quot;. Non-Governmental Politics. Ed. Michel Feher. New York : Zone Books, 2007. 391-98.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Dr. Soenke Zehle &lt;br /&gt;
Transcultural Media Studies Project FR 4.3 &lt;br /&gt;
Universitaet des Saarlandes 66041 Saarbruecken &lt;br /&gt;
Germany &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;s.zehle@mx.uni-saarland.de&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Soenke Zehle teaches transcultural literary and media studies at Saarland University as well as the Academy of Fine Arts in Saarbruecken, Germany. He holds degrees in comparative literature, philosophy, and translation. For a full list of publications see &lt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tas.uni-saarland.de/&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;http://www.tas.uni-saarland.de&lt;/a&gt;&gt;.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_154 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right; width:99px;'&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/fr/&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;&lt;img src='http://www.voxinternet.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L99xH33_logo_CC-46-be455.gif' width='99' height='33' alt=&quot;&quot; style='height:33px;width:99px;' class='' /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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		&lt;div class='rss_notes'&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh5-1&quot; name=&quot;nb5-1&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 5-1&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;] This essay was written in the context of a collaborative research process exploring the modalities of subjectivation and institutional formation across network societies. I thank Julian Kuecklich, Brett Neilson, and Ned Rossiter for comments on this version.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh5-2&quot; name=&quot;nb5-2&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 5-2&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;] All policy documents are available online at &lt;http://www.european-creative-industries.eu&gt;.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh5-3&quot; name=&quot;nb5-3&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 5-3&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;] See Soenke Zehle, &quot;The Campaign for Communication Rights : After the World Summit on the Information Society&quot;, Non-Governmental Politics, ed. Michel Feher, New York : Zone Books, 2007, 391-98. On Access-to-Knowledge (A2K), Paris Accords, WIPO Development, Open Document Format, see &lt;http://www.cptech.org/a2k&gt;.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh5-4&quot; name=&quot;nb5-4&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 5-4&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;] See Soenke Zehle, &quot;Technologies du Commun&quot;, Vacarme 34 (Hiver 2006), 91-94. The notion of 'technologies of the common' emerged in the context of another collabotrative research process in 2004, including Arianna Bov&#233;, Erik Empson, Susanne Lang, Geert Lovink, Florian Schneider, and Soenke Zehle : &quot;The new technologies of the common are not universal hierarchies of political right but small scale and intimate practices of constitution. The new involves those who see the limitations of individual social practices of self-realisation and desire to turn them into general and transferable social technologies of emancipation&quot; &lt;http://neuro.kein.org&gt;. Bov&#233; has since elaborated this term as well, stressing the interpretation of exodus-defection-withdraw as (social) innovation. See her &quot;Technologies of the Common&quot; in A critical ontology of the present : Foucault and the task of our times (Dissertation 2007), available at &lt;http://www.generation-online.org/other/acop/acopcontents.htm&gt;.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh5-5&quot; name=&quot;nb5-5&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 5-5&quot;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;] Michel Foucault, &#8220;Deux essais sur le sujet et le pouvoir&#8221;, Dits et &#201;crits, vol. II (Paris : Gallimard, 2001) ; transl. as &quot;The Subject and Power&quot;, Critical Inquiry, Vol. 8, No. 4 (Summer, 1982), pp. 777-795.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip_note&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/#nh5-6&quot; name=&quot;nb5-6&quot; class=&quot;spip_note&quot; title=&quot;Notes 5-6&quot;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;] Felix Stalder, Manuel Castells : The Theory of the Network Society, London : Polity Press, 2006.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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	<item>
		<title>La vie et les r&#232;gles, entre le droit et le non droit</title>
		<link>http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?article113</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?article113</guid>
		<dc:date>2007-06-21T13:06:26Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Fran&#231;oise MASSIT-FOLLEA</dc:creator>

<category domain="http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?rubrique14">L'Internet des objets : communication et identit&#233;s</category>

		<dc:subject>Article scientifique</dc:subject>

		<description>Mardi 5 juin 2007, lors d'une conf&#233;rence donn&#233;e au Centre d'&#233;tude des normes juridiques (CENJ) de l'EHESS, Stefano Rodota a pr&#233;sent&#233; les principales questions soulev&#233;es dans son dernier ouvrage (Feltrinelli, 2006) : &#171; La vita et le regole. Tra diritto e non diritto &#187; (La vie et les r&#232;gles. Entre le droit et le non droit). &lt;br /&gt;Professeur de Droit civil &#224; l'Universit&#233; de Rome La Sapienza, Stefano Rodota a &#233;t&#233; Pr&#233;sident de l'Autorit&#233; italienne pour la protection des donn&#233;es personnelles (...)


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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_chapo'&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Mardi 5 juin 2007, lors d'une conf&#233;rence donn&#233;e au Centre d'&#233;tude des normes juridiques (CENJ) de l'EHESS, &lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Stefano Rodota &lt;/strong&gt;a pr&#233;sent&#233; les principales questions soulev&#233;es dans son dernier ouvrage (Feltrinelli, 2006&lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;) : &#171; La vita et le regole. Tra diritto e non diritto &#187;&lt;/i&gt; (La vie et les r&#232;gles. Entre le droit et le non droit).&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Professeur de Droit civil &#224; l'Universit&#233; de Rome La Sapienza, Stefano Rodota a &#233;t&#233; Pr&#233;sident de l'Autorit&#233; italienne pour la protection des donn&#233;es personnelles (1997-2005), Pr&#233;sident du Groupe europ&#233;en de protection des donn&#233;es (2000-2004) ; il a exerc&#233; plusieurs mandats politiques. Il collabore r&#233;guli&#232;rement &#224; &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;La Repubblica&lt;/i&gt;. Il a publi&#233; de nombreux ouvrages, dont, en fran&#231;ais, &#171; La d&#233;mocratie &#233;lectronique. De nouveaux concepts et exp&#233;riences politiques &#187; (&#233;ditions Apog&#233;e, Rennes, 1999).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;
&lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&#171; La vita e le regole &#187;.&lt;/i&gt; Pr&#233;sentation de l'&#233;diteur &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;(notre traduction).&lt;/i&gt;
&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Nous vivons dans une soci&#233;t&#233; satur&#233;e de droit, de r&#232;gles juridiques d'origines tr&#232;s diverses, impos&#233;es tant par les pouvoirs publics que par des puissances priv&#233;es. Depuis quelques si&#232;cles, en effet, le champ d'exercice du droit s'est progressivement &#233;tendu, englobant des questions autrefois li&#233;es au gouvernement de la religion, de l'&#233;thique, de la coutume ou de la nature.&lt;br /&gt;
Les nouvelles technologies du vivant (g&#233;n&#233;tique, reproduction, prolongement artificiel de la vie) ainsi que les technologies du contr&#244;le (nouvelles possibilit&#233;s d'acc&#232;s &#224; la vie priv&#233;e des individus de la part des institutions et des organismes priv&#233;s) ont plac&#233; le droit au centre d'un r&#233;seau serr&#233; de questionnements &#233;thiques et politiques. L'acceptation sociale est rarement en ad&#233;quation avec la complexit&#233; du ph&#233;nom&#232;ne qui r&#233;v&#232;le nombre d'asym&#233;tries et de dangers. Le droit envahit une multitude de secteurs en m&#234;me temps qu'il fait d&#233;faut l&#224; o&#249; on en aurait le plus grand besoin. &lt;br /&gt;
Le livre de Stefano Rodota confronte la question du droit, dans toute son ampleur, aux choix &#233;thiques, sociaux, politiques de la soci&#233;t&#233; contemporaine. Le potentiel pervasif de domination du droit enjoint de poser des limites &#224; son exercice.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;
&lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&#171; La vita e le regole &#187;.&lt;/i&gt; Rapide compte rendu de la conf&#233;rence &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;(tenue en fran&#231;ais).&lt;/i&gt;
&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Dans la r&#233;flexion sur les libert&#233;s civiles, la convergence des nouvelles technologies (NBC) renouvelle la probl&#233;matique de l'articulation entre espace public et espace priv&#233;, entre r&#232;gles de nature et r&#232;gles sociales. La pens&#233;e d'un droit &#171; efficace, minimal et utile &#187; reste &#224; fonder. En bio&#233;thique, par exemple, les questions qui se posent aujourd'hui (sur les greffes de visage, le dossier m&#233;dical personnalis&#233;, l'identification des personnes) sont les m&#234;mes qu'il y a 15 ans. La capture des donn&#233;es personnelles et l'interconnexion des fichiers sont encadr&#233;es de mani&#232;re al&#233;atoire, notamment en fonction des contextes culturels de fondement des droits, et l'on peut ais&#233;ment passer du contr&#244;le des identit&#233;s &#224; celui des conduites.&lt;br /&gt;
Le propos du conf&#233;rencier s'ouvre sous les auspices de Montaigne ... et des hypermarch&#233;s Auchan. Du premier, Rodota cite la phrase suivante : &#171; La vie est un mouvement in&#233;gal, irr&#233;gulier et multiforme &#187;. Le slogan des seconds &#171; La vie. La vraie &#187;, en offre un d&#233;menti : le sens unique de la vie serait l'immersion totale dans le monde de la marchandise. D'un c&#244;t&#233; une approche la&#239;que, sceptique, probl&#233;matique et plurielle, qui pose un d&#233;fi au droit normatif cens&#233; produire de la r&#233;gularit&#233;, voire de l'uniformit&#233;. De l'autre la superposition des demandes plan&#233;taires de masse vou&#233;es &#224; introduire des normalisations empreintes de marges d'arbitraire et de contr&#244;le : les forces de la science et de la technique accompagnent l'extension de la consommation, le droit est &#171; saisi par &#187; l'ordinateur ou la biologie, l'identit&#233; bouscul&#233;e par la virtualit&#233;, la biographie par la biom&#233;trie. &lt;br /&gt;
Il y a l&#224; un risque de r&#233;ductionnisme des forces du droit, alors m&#234;me que, dans les textes fondamentaux les plus r&#233;cents (que ce soit le nouveau code civil allemand ou la Charte de l'Union europ&#233;enne), le sujet de droit ne se r&#233;duit pas &#224; l'&lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Homo Economicus. &lt;/i&gt;Sortir la personne, le corps, de l'emprise de la marchandise, c'est postuler que la solidarit&#233; est constitutive du lien social, que la dignit&#233; humaine n'est pas pure abstraction. &lt;br /&gt;
Alors que le 19&#232;me si&#232;cle avait mis l'accent sur la question de la propri&#233;t&#233;, aujourd'hui c'est le &#171; gouvernement du corps &#187; qui est devenu une question de politique publique. C'est la personne humaine que le march&#233; veut exploiter comme &#171; mati&#232;re premi&#232;re &#187; de cr&#233;ation de richesses (essais cliniques, mines de donn&#233;es personnelles ...). On &#233;voque ainsi parfois un &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Habeas Data&lt;/i&gt; parall&#232;le au traditionnel &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Habeas Corpus&lt;/i&gt; ... &lt;br /&gt;
Mais cette concr&#233;tisation du sujet devrait aller de pair avec un pluralisme du droit : il s'agit de passer du &#171; sujet de droit &#187; au &#171; sujet des droits &#187;, pour arbitrer entre garantie de l'autonomie et pr&#233;vention sociale, entre proportionnalit&#233; et acceptation des r&#232;gles. Alors que des in&#233;galit&#233;s &#233;conomiques ou culturelles dans l'acc&#232;s aux droits (&#171; ce sont les pauvres qui vendent leur corps &#187; ) &#233;voquent &#171; la r&#233;surgence d'une citoyennet&#233; censitaire &#187;, la circulation des biens et des personnes entra&#238;ne aussi une circulation des mod&#232;les. Ce qui nourrit l'universalisme dans une d&#233;marche &#171; bottom up &#187;. &lt;br /&gt;
En conclusion, S. Rodota rappelle &#224; quel point la loi des hommes est faite pour substituer la libert&#233; &#224; la fatalit&#233; et combien la reconceptualisation du droit face &#224; l'avanc&#233;e des techniques suppose de flexibilit&#233; et de sobri&#233;t&#233;.
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		<title>Information Science and Technologies: Ethical or Social Responsabilities ?</title>
		<link>http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?article98</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?article98</guid>
		<dc:date>2007-06-06T22:00:00Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>en</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Jean-Gabriel GANASCIA</dc:creator>

<category domain="http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?rubrique14">L'Internet des objets : communication et identit&#233;s</category>

		<dc:subject>Article scientifique</dc:subject>

		<description>Introduction &lt;br /&gt;My field of research covers machine learning, data mining, modeling scientific discovery, and human creative processes. My research group investigates the ways people invent and get new ideas with the help of computers. For more than 12 years, I have also been in charge of some interdisciplinary programs in the area of cognitive science. &lt;br /&gt;One of the most exciting challenges, either in artificial intelligence or in cognitive science, is to understand the material bases of the (...)


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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Introduction&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;My field of research covers machine learning, data mining, modeling scientific discovery, and human creative processes. My research group investigates the ways people invent and get new ideas with the help of computers. For more than 12 years, I have also been in charge of some interdisciplinary programs in the area of cognitive science.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;One of the most exciting challenges, either in artificial intelligence or in cognitive science, is to understand the material bases of the human mind and to simulate the basic intellectual processes on computers. If successful, what could be the consequence of such a simulation? What would be the ethical and social responsibilities of the scientists, trying to create artificial creatures that would evolve and reproduce by themselves?&lt;br /&gt;
This paper attempts to examine those questions with respect to the state of the art. However, before going into more details, we should note that very few people are interested in the ethical consequences of developments in Information Sciences and Technologies (IST) even if there exist a conference, a journal (ETHICOMP http://www.ccsr.cse.dmu.ac.uk/journal/), some institutes (e.g. the Computer Ethics Institute, http://www.brook.edu/its/cei/cei_hp.htm) and websites (for instance the Center for Computing and Social Responsibility maintains a web site http://www.ccsr.cse.dmu.ac.uk/) gathering information on this topic. For many years, I also thought that computer scientists had mainly social and political responsibilities. In a way, the question refers to the nature of scientific responsibility in IST. Is this responsibility ethical or social (and political), or both ethical and social? I will focus mainly on this problem, first dealing with the arguments of those who affirm that there is a real ethical responsibility, then examining the exact nature of social (and political) responsibilities in this field. I will then try to answer the initial question: &#8220;Are the responsibilities of scientists in IST ethical, social, or both?&#8221;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Ethical Responsibilities&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;Most researchers in IST do not ponder their ethical responsibilities, because they think that they do not have any. As an information scientist, I am often questioned when I present artificial intelligence to a broad audience. People ask me why we are not afraid of the consequences of our research that, if successful, could create artificially intelligent creatures able to beat and to defeat us. Some researchers and engineers-who are not the majority in our scientific community nourished those fears by fostering nightmarish images. Two examples will illustrate my point.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The first is a Belgium researcher, Hugo deGaris, who worked in different institutions throughout the world. He believes scientists have been creating intelligent artifacts, called &#8220;artilects,&#8221; which will become highly intelligent in the near future, more intelligent than humans.&lt;br /&gt;
They will reproduce themselves, evolve, adapt to the outside environment, and render mankind destitute and reduced to slavery. de Garis (1999) insists we have to consider the danger now, while there is time; it is urgent to stop research on artificial life, neural networks, and genetic programming, because later will be too late. I was interviewed by many journalists who wrote about deGaris's strange theory in well-known newspapers. For instance in France, &#8220;Le Monde&#8221; and &#8220;Lib&#233;ration&#8221; referred many times to Hugo de Garis's ideas. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;De Garis is not alone. Bill Joy, a famous American engineer who is the cofounder and chief scientist of Sun Microsystem Company, a paper (Joy, 2000) wherein he anticipated the devastating consequences of nanotechnologies. He suggested that in the near future micro-robots would be able to reproduce themselves, proliferate, and destroy our natural environment as do microbes or viruses.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;If such views were true, scientists should stop their research. It would be our responsibility, as scientists, to explain the risks and to put people on guard. And others well-know engineers and researchers, for instance Hans Moravec or Raymond Kurweil pretend that machine will soon surpass human brains.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;But, do we really have to consider seriously the arguments of Joy, deGaris, Moravec and Kurzweil, and expect such catastrophes? From a scientific point of view, nobody can prove that such events will not happen in the future, but there is no scientific argument that can justify such prognostication. The present state of the art in robotics, artificial intelligence, or nanotechnologies does not support such predictions. As a scientist, I cannot explain how it would be possible for a robot to learn, to adapt its behavior to the external world, to reproduce itself. There are different research groups working on all of these subjects-artificial life, genetic algorithms, adaptive behavior, and other areas-and they are achieving outstanding results that may be applied in many situations to solve practical problems. But none of these results can justify such prophecies. Since scientific responsibility is relative to scientific knowledge, and not to obscure fears drawn from the ancient times, scientists in IST have no real ethical responsibilities.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;We should recall that scientific responsibility is meant to enlighten the human community, to explain what are the real dangers, without propagating fantasy and fearfulness that have no rational base. In this respect, people like de Garis, Joy, Moravec or Kurweil who abuse their scientific authority have to be condemned strongly by the scientific community.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Social and Political Responsibilities&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;I have pointed out that scientists in the field of IST have no real ethical responsibilities, in the sense that present scientific results do not allow for a serious consideration of the risk of an emerging artificial creature-or artificial species-able to destroy mankind. Does that mean that scientists in IST are free of any responsibilities? The answer is clearly no! Even if there are no ethical scientific responsibilities there are strong social and political responsibilities.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;During the last decade, ISTs changed many things in our society: the way people communicate has been modified; the social organization has been transformed; the old notion of nation, sovereignty, and authority are rapidly evolving. Moreover, there are dramatic consequences for individual privacy.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;For instance, with mobile phones, it is now possible to track people and to record their private conversations. Your personal e-mail can easily be read and interpreted by machines. Data mining techniques are able to explore huge amounts of data and to extract information relative to your past, to your health, or to your political involvement. In the near future, remote sensing data will be so detailed that it will be possible to follow your moves in your garden. Personal privacy is in danger, or it could be definitively lost (Amato, 1999, Ganascia, 2004). It is the responsibility of scientists to explain the risks and to help politicians create appropriate legislation..&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The second consequence of the development of ISTs is the enormous flow of information that becomes so voluminous that people aren't able to assimilate it. It is becoming more and more difficult to distinguish the important facts from the mass of questionable data. Therefore, it is easy to dissimulate information behind huge amounts of unimportant factual data. Our main challenge is to allow people not only to be fully informed and even over-informed, but also to be clearly advised. In addition, a second challenge is to permit a real debate where all arguments would be considered and respected. How would it be possible to restore, with modern information technologies to initiate a public discussion? If the latter can be restored, if information could be unfiltered, if people could resist the information flow, if public space could be something else, and not only a public show, how would the modern world establish a democracy that is not based on sovereignty (Ganascia, 2001; Floridi, 1998)? This problem can only be solved with the participation of IST scientists.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;A third point is the evolution of memory. New information technologies have dramatically increased external memories. For instance, the informational content of millions of books can be recorded and stored on a disc smaller than a 20 cm square handkerchief. Moreover, it is now possible to record a &#8220;life movie&#8221; containing every minute of an individual's life. Would adults be happy to have their past life recorded? How would this external memory be accessible? Should it be possible to erase some episode that we are not proud of? All this memory being numeric, it is possible, if necessary, to build artificial memory, to invent or to transform our personal &#8220;life movie.&#8221; How will we prove the authenticity of images? While ISTs expand our external memory, our private internal memory may considerably decrease, since we do not have to learn poetry, texts, and other details. What will be the consequences of such an evolution? If imagination is related to memory, how will this diminution of our internal memory content affect our creative abilities?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;It appears that the generalized use of information technologies has considerable influence on the evolution of society. As a result, it is the responsibility of scientists and engineers, who made these techniques and who know the possible misuses, to prevent dangerous developments and to advise people when they emerge.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Conclusion&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;It appears from the foregoing that scientific responsibility in the field of IST is mainly social and not ethical. The dissemination of information technologies transforms our social and political organizations. Researchers have to think about the consequences of what they create. However, it seems that there is no real ethical responsibility, since ISTs do not degrade and do not depreciate individuals. For many years, I believed that IST scientists had social responsibilities, and no ethical responsibilities. I have been recently changing my mind: we do have some ethical responsibilities, but these ethical responsibilities have nothing to do with the creation of artificial creatures. The &#8220;Golem,&#8221; a medieval statue made of a shale or a modern high-speed computer, is just a myth.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;With modern ISTs, with computers that simulate intelligent behavior, with the progress of cognitive science, we attribute intelligence to animals and machines. Even if this attribution of cognitive abilities is mainly metaphorical and even if very restricted, it has recently been amplified by people who publicly consider that human rights should be attributed to animals. The so-called &#8220;Great Ape Project&#8221; clearly states that some animals, especially the great ape, have cognitive abilities superior to certain humans. Therefore, we have &#8220;to include the non-human great apes within the community of equals by granting them the basic moral and legal protection that only human beings currently enjoy&#8221; (Regans, 1983; Singer, 1991; www.greatapeproject.org). This extension of moral and legal protection is not applied only to animals. It becomes quite routine now to extend it also to machines. A science fiction movie, &#8220;AI - Artificial Intelligence,&#8221; featured an android feeling emotions and love for humans. The moral of this film, explicitly stated by Steven Spielberg, was that people cannot ignore those who love them, even if they are machines, and that we have to consider and to protect them as our equals. The film ends with a strange vision, in the long-term future, where the only one remembering the human age will be those human-faced robots that we built.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The danger of such fantasy is neither the scenario nor the idea that mankind could disappear.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;It is that it accustoms us to ignore the strong barrier between human and non-human. If robots and animals may benefit from human rights and belong to the community of equals, it suggests that mankind is not restricted to humanity. Therefore, since we have to distinguish in this community of equals those who are human and those who are not, we could also be led to distinguish among humans, different kinds of humans.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;By ignoring these frontiers between humans and non-humans and the unity of mankind, we ignore the real ethical danger. Therefore, our ethical responsibility as scientists in all fields of science, and especially in the field of IST, is to recall it, everywhere and every time, even if it happens from time to time that advances in sciences and technologies make some people hope to naturalize the mind, the emotions and the intelligence, i.e. to reduce them to some physiological, physical and chemical processes and to rebuild with computers the processes which give birth to them. Moreover, in these cases, it is of social responsibility for the scientists, especially of scientists from the field of IST, i.e. Information Science and Technology, to inform clearly on the real risks and not to hold up illusory threats with an aim of making fear and of being considered.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;References&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/strong&gt;Amato, Ivan. 1999. &#8220;&lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;God's Eye for Sale.&lt;/i&gt;&#8221; MIT Technology Review, March-April.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Floridi, Luciano, &quot;Information Ethics: From Case-based Analyses to Theoretical Foundations&quot;ETHICOMP98, republished in &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;ETHICOMP Journal &lt;/i&gt;http://www.ccsr.cse.dmu.ac.uk/journal&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Ganascia, Jean-Gabriel. 2001. &#8220;&lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Ab&#233;c&#233;daire de d&#233;mocratie interactive&lt;/i&gt;&#8221;, Revue des deux mondes,Paris, February.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Ganascia Jean-Gabriel, 2004, &#8220;&lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Ethique et technologie de l'information&lt;/i&gt;&#8221;, conference MURS-coll&#232;ge de France, 27 April 2004, published in Les cahiers du MURS, N&#176;45, juin 2005&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;de Garis, Hugo. 1999. &#8220;&lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;2000 D&#233;bats pour le si&#232;cle &#224; venir, Hugo de Garis, chercheur en intelligence artificielle&lt;/i&gt;&#8221;, Le Monde du 9 novembre, pages horizon-d&#233;bat.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Moravec, Hans, 1998, &#8220;When will Hardware Match the Human Brain?&#8221; Journal of Evolution and Technology, Vol. 1, http://www.transhumanist.com/volume1/moravec.htm&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Joy, Bill. 1991. &#8220;&lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Why the future doesn't need us.&lt;/i&gt;&#8221; Wired Magazine, April.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Kurzweil, Raymond, 1999, The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence. Ed. Penguin.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Regans, Tom. 1983. &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The case for animal rights&lt;/i&gt;. University of California Press, Berkeley, 94720.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Singer, Peter. 1991. &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Animal Liberation: A New Ethics for Our Treatment of Animals&lt;/i&gt;. 2nd Ed.,Avon, New York.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Cet article a &#233;t&#233; publi&#233; dans les actes d'un colloque organis&#233; par le MURS (Mouvement Universel pour la Responsabilit&#233; Scientifique)&#224; la Bibliotheca Alexandrina, &#224; Alexandrie (Egypte), en Octobre 2002.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_108 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right; width:99px;'&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/fr/&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;&lt;img src='http://www.voxinternet.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L99xH33_logo_CC-7-ac7e9.gif' width='99' height='33' alt=&quot;&quot; style='height:33px;width:99px;' class='' /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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		<title>Information Science and Technologies : Ethical or Social Responsibilities ?</title>
		<link>http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?article97</link>
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		<dc:date>2006-06-06T22:00:00Z</dc:date>
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		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Jean-Gabriel GANASCIA</dc:creator>

<category domain="http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?rubrique14">L'Internet des objets : communication et identit&#233;s</category>

		<dc:subject>Article scientifique</dc:subject>

		<description>Introduction &lt;br /&gt;My field of research covers machine learning, data mining, modeling scientific discovery, and human creative processes. My research group investigates the ways people invent and get new ideas with the help of computers. For more than 12 years, I have also been in charge of some interdisciplinary programs in the area of cognitive science. &lt;br /&gt;One of the most exciting challenges, either in artificial intelligence or in cognitive science, is to understand the material bases of the (...)


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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Introduction&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;My field of research covers machine learning, data mining, modeling scientific discovery, and human creative processes. My research group investigates the ways people invent and get new ideas with the help of computers. For more than 12 years, I have also been in charge of some interdisciplinary programs in the area of cognitive science.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;One of the most exciting challenges, either in artificial intelligence or in cognitive science, is to understand the material bases of the human mind and to simulate the basic intellectual processes on computers. If successful, what could be the consequence of such a simulation ? What would be the ethical and social responsibilities of the scientists, trying to create artificial creatures that would evolve and reproduce by themselves ?&lt;br /&gt;
This paper attempts to examine those questions with respect to the state of the art. However, before going into more details, we should note that very few people are interested in the ethical consequences of developments in Information Sciences and Technologies (IST) even if there exist a conference, a journal (ETHICOMP http://www.ccsr.cse.dmu.ac.uk/journal/), some institutes (e.g. the Computer Ethics Institute, http://www.brook.edu/its/cei/cei_hp.htm) and websites (for instance the Center for Computing and Social Responsibility maintains a web site http://www.ccsr.cse.dmu.ac.uk/) gathering information on this topic. For many years, I also thought that computer scientists had mainly social and political responsibilities. In a way, the question refers to the nature of scientific responsibility in IST. Is this responsibility ethical or social (and political), or both ethical and social ? I will focus mainly on this problem, first dealing with the arguments of those who affirm that there is a real ethical responsibility, then examining the exact nature of social (and political) responsibilities in this field. I will then try to answer the initial question : &#8220;Are the responsibilities of scientists in IST ethical, social, or both ?&#8221;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Ethical Responsibilities&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;Most researchers in IST do not ponder their ethical responsibilities, because they think that they do not have any. As an information scientist, I am often questioned when I present artificial intelligence to a broad audience. People ask me why we are not afraid of the consequences of our research that, if successful, could create artificially intelligent creatures able to beat and to defeat us. Some researchers and engineers-who are not the majority in our scientific community nourished those fears by fostering nightmarish images. Two examples will illustrate my point.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The first is a Belgium researcher, Hugo deGaris, who worked in different institutions throughout the world. He believes scientists have been creating intelligent artifacts, called &#8220;artilects,&#8221; which will become highly intelligent in the near future, more intelligent than humans.&lt;br /&gt;
They will reproduce themselves, evolve, adapt to the outside environment, and render mankind destitute and reduced to slavery. de Garis (1999) insists we have to consider the danger now, while there is time ; it is urgent to stop research on artificial life, neural networks, and genetic programming, because later will be too late. I was interviewed by many journalists who wrote about deGaris's strange theory in well-known newspapers. For instance in France, &#8220;Le Monde&#8221; and &#8220;Lib&#233;ration&#8221; referred many times to Hugo de Garis's ideas. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;De Garis is not alone. Bill Joy, a famous American engineer who is the cofounder and chief scientist of Sun Microsystem Company, a paper (Joy, 2000) wherein he anticipated the devastating consequences of nanotechnologies. He suggested that in the near future micro-robots would be able to reproduce themselves, proliferate, and destroy our natural environment as do microbes or viruses.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;If such views were true, scientists should stop their research. It would be our responsibility, as scientists, to explain the risks and to put people on guard. And others well-know engineers and researchers, for instance Hans Moravec or Raymond Kurweil pretend that machine will soon surpass human brains.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;But, do we really have to consider seriously the arguments of Joy, deGaris, Moravec and Kurzweil, and expect such catastrophes ? From a scientific point of view, nobody can prove that such events will not happen in the future, but there is no scientific argument that can justify such prognostication. The present state of the art in robotics, artificial intelligence, or nanotechnologies does not support such predictions. As a scientist, I cannot explain how it would be possible for a robot to learn, to adapt its behavior to the external world, to reproduce itself. There are different research groups working on all of these subjects-artificial life, genetic algorithms, adaptive behavior, and other areas-and they are achieving outstanding results that may be applied in many situations to solve practical problems. But none of these results can justify such prophecies. Since scientific responsibility is relative to scientific knowledge, and not to obscure fears drawn from the ancient times, scientists in IST have no real ethical responsibilities.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;We should recall that scientific responsibility is meant to enlighten the human community, to explain what are the real dangers, without propagating fantasy and fearfulness that have no rational base. In this respect, people like de Garis, Joy, Moravec or Kurweil who abuse their scientific authority have to be condemned strongly by the scientific community.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Social and Political Responsibilities&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;I have pointed out that scientists in the field of IST have no real ethical responsibilities, in the sense that present scientific results do not allow for a serious consideration of the risk of an emerging artificial creature-or artificial species-able to destroy mankind. Does that mean that scientists in IST are free of any responsibilities ? The answer is clearly no ! Even if there are no ethical scientific responsibilities there are strong social and political responsibilities.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;During the last decade, ISTs changed many things in our society : the way people communicate has been modified ; the social organization has been transformed ; the old notion of nation, sovereignty, and authority are rapidly evolving. Moreover, there are dramatic consequences for individual privacy.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;For instance, with mobile phones, it is now possible to track people and to record their private conversations. Your personal e-mail can easily be read and interpreted by machines. Data mining techniques are able to explore huge amounts of data and to extract information relative to your past, to your health, or to your political involvement. In the near future, remote sensing data will be so detailed that it will be possible to follow your moves in your garden. Personal privacy is in danger, or it could be definitively lost (Amato, 1999, Ganascia, 2004). It is the responsibility of scientists to explain the risks and to help politicians create appropriate legislation..&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The second consequence of the development of ISTs is the enormous flow of information that becomes so voluminous that people aren't able to assimilate it. It is becoming more and more difficult to distinguish the important facts from the mass of questionable data. Therefore, it is easy to dissimulate information behind huge amounts of unimportant factual data. Our main challenge is to allow people not only to be fully informed and even over-informed, but also to be clearly advised. In addition, a second challenge is to permit a real debate where all arguments would be considered and respected. How would it be possible to restore, with modern information technologies to initiate a public discussion ? If the latter can be restored, if information could be unfiltered, if people could resist the information flow, if public space could be something else, and not only a public show, how would the modern world establish a democracy that is not based on sovereignty (Ganascia, 2001 ; Floridi, 1998) ? This problem can only be solved with the participation of IST scientists.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;A third point is the evolution of memory. New information technologies have dramatically increased external memories. For instance, the informational content of millions of books can be recorded and stored on a disc smaller than a 20 cm square handkerchief. Moreover, it is now possible to record a &#8220;life movie&#8221; containing every minute of an individual's life. Would adults be happy to have their past life recorded ? How would this external memory be accessible ? Should it be possible to erase some episode that we are not proud of ? All this memory being numeric, it is possible, if necessary, to build artificial memory, to invent or to transform our personal &#8220;life movie.&#8221; How will we prove the authenticity of images ? While ISTs expand our external memory, our private internal memory may considerably decrease, since we do not have to learn poetry, texts, and other details. What will be the consequences of such an evolution ? If imagination is related to memory, how will this diminution of our internal memory content affect our creative abilities ?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;It appears that the generalized use of information technologies has considerable influence on the evolution of society. As a result, it is the responsibility of scientists and engineers, who made these techniques and who know the possible misuses, to prevent dangerous developments and to advise people when they emerge.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Conclusion&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;It appears from the foregoing that scientific responsibility in the field of IST is mainly social and not ethical. The dissemination of information technologies transforms our social and political organizations. Researchers have to think about the consequences of what they create. However, it seems that there is no real ethical responsibility, since ISTs do not degrade and do not depreciate individuals. For many years, I believed that IST scientists had social responsibilities, and no ethical responsibilities. I have been recently changing my mind : we do have some ethical responsibilities, but these ethical responsibilities have nothing to do with the creation of artificial creatures. The &#8220;Golem,&#8221; a medieval statue made of a shale or a modern high-speed computer, is just a myth.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;With modern ISTs, with computers that simulate intelligent behavior, with the progress of cognitive science, we attribute intelligence to animals and machines. Even if this attribution of cognitive abilities is mainly metaphorical and even if very restricted, it has recently been amplified by people who publicly consider that human rights should be attributed to animals. The so-called &#8220;Great Ape Project&#8221; clearly states that some animals, especially the great ape, have cognitive abilities superior to certain humans. Therefore, we have &#8220;to include the non-human great apes within the community of equals by granting them the basic moral and legal protection that only human beings currently enjoy&#8221; (Regans, 1983 ; Singer, 1991 ; www.greatapeproject.org). This extension of moral and legal protection is not applied only to animals. It becomes quite routine now to extend it also to machines. A science fiction movie, &#8220;AI - Artificial Intelligence,&#8221; featured an android feeling emotions and love for humans. The moral of this film, explicitly stated by Steven Spielberg, was that people cannot ignore those who love them, even if they are machines, and that we have to consider and to protect them as our equals. The film ends with a strange vision, in the long-term future, where the only one remembering the human age will be those human-faced robots that we built.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The danger of such fantasy is neither the scenario nor the idea that mankind could disappear.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;It is that it accustoms us to ignore the strong barrier between human and non-human. If robots and animals may benefit from human rights and belong to the community of equals, it suggests that mankind is not restricted to humanity. Therefore, since we have to distinguish in this community of equals those who are human and those who are not, we could also be led to distinguish among humans, different kinds of humans.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;By ignoring these frontiers between humans and non-humans and the unity of mankind, we ignore the real ethical danger. Therefore, our ethical responsibility as scientists in all fields of science, and especially in the field of IST, is to recall it, everywhere and every time, even if it happens from time to time that advances in sciences and technologies make some people hope to naturalize the mind, the emotions and the intelligence, i.e. to reduce them to some physiological, physical and chemical processes and to rebuild with computers the processes which give birth to them. Moreover, in these cases, it is of social responsibility for the scientists, especially of scientists from the field of IST, i.e. Information Science and Technology, to inform clearly on the real risks and not to hold up illusory threats with an aim of making fear and of being considered.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;References&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/strong&gt;Amato, Ivan. 1999. &#8220;&lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;God's Eye for Sale.&lt;/i&gt;&#8221; MIT Technology Review, March-April.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Floridi, Luciano, &quot;Information Ethics : From Case-based Analyses to Theoretical Foundations&quot;ETHICOMP98, republished in &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;ETHICOMP Journal &lt;/i&gt;http://www.ccsr.cse.dmu.ac.uk/journal&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Ganascia, Jean-Gabriel. 2001. &#8220;&lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Ab&#233;c&#233;daire de d&#233;mocratie interactive&lt;/i&gt;&#8221;, Revue des deux mondes,Paris, February.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Ganascia Jean-Gabriel, 2004, &#8220;&lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Ethique et technologie de l'information&lt;/i&gt;&#8221;, conference MURS-coll&#232;ge de France, 27 April 2004, published in Les cahiers du MURS, N&#176;45, juin 2005&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;de Garis, Hugo. 1999. &#8220;&lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;2000 D&#233;bats pour le si&#232;cle &#224; venir, Hugo de Garis, chercheur en intelligence artificielle&lt;/i&gt;&#8221;, Le Monde du 9 novembre, pages horizon-d&#233;bat.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Moravec, Hans, 1998, &#8220;When will Hardware Match the Human Brain ?&#8221; Journal of Evolution and Technology, Vol. 1, http://www.transhumanist.com/volume1/moravec.htm&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Joy, Bill. 1991. &#8220;&lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Why the future doesn't need us.&lt;/i&gt;&#8221; Wired Magazine, April.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Kurzweil, Raymond, 1999, The Age of Spiritual Machines : When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence. Ed. Penguin.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Regans, Tom. 1983. &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The case for animal rights&lt;/i&gt;. University of California Press, Berkeley, 94720.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Singer, Peter. 1991. &lt;i class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Animal Liberation : A New Ethics for Our Treatment of Animals&lt;/i&gt;. 2nd Ed.,Avon, New York.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Cet article a &#233;t&#233; publi&#233; dans les actes d'un colloque organis&#233; par le MURS (Mouvement Universel pour la Responsabilit&#233; Scientifique)&#224; la Bibliotheca Alexandrina, &#224; Alexandrie (Egypte), en Octobre 2002.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;span class='spip_document_109 spip_documents spip_documents_right' style='float:right; width:99px;'&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/fr/&quot; class=&quot;spip_out&quot;&gt;&lt;img src='http://www.voxinternet.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L99xH33_logo_CC-8-7e058.gif' width='99' height='33' alt=&quot;&quot; style='height:33px;width:99px;' class='' /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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		<title>The Internet of things: communication and identities</title>
		<link>http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?article58</link>
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		<dc:date>2006-03-11T23:00:00Z</dc:date>
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		<dc:language>en</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Vox Internet</dc:creator>

<category domain="http://www.voxinternet.fr/spip.php?rubrique14">L'Internet des objets : communication et identit&#233;s</category>

		<dc:subject>Article scientifique</dc:subject>

		<description>The Internet of things, pervasive networks, ubiquity... 2005 saw an increase in technological forecasts of another revolution in ICT, returning in fact to the old dream of &quot;intelligent&quot; machines. The generalization radio frequency ID (RFID) foretells of a continuum of interfaces between society and its objects. From the smart factory to the smart home, an industrializable technological system will eventually arise, in which objects will be increasingly qualified by embedded data that can (...)

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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_chapo'&gt;The Internet of things, pervasive networks, ubiquity... 2005 saw an increase in technological forecasts of another revolution in ICT, returning in fact to the old dream of &quot;intelligent&quot; machines. The generalization radio frequency ID (RFID) foretells of a continuum of interfaces between society and its objects. From the smart factory to the smart home, an industrializable technological system will eventually arise, in which objects will be increasingly qualified by embedded data that can send and receive information.&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;Where are we really in the process of transforming our surroundings into colonies of intelligent automata? What new cycles of nanotechnology-based innovation will arise? What are the implications in terms of uses and regulations?&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L8xH11_puce-68c92.gif&quot; width='8' height='11' alt=&quot;-&quot; style='height:11px;width:8px;' class='' /&gt; Beyond technical conditions, what new functions will this system offer to organizations? To people? What is the status of the first industrialized applications? What limits and constraints do the latter encounter?&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L8xH11_puce-68c92.gif&quot; width='8' height='11' alt=&quot;-&quot; style='height:11px;width:8px;' class='' /&gt; While the network is becoming invisible and ambient, the trend in human/machine or machine/machine interactions appears to be much more a cognitive and anthropological challenge than a simple addition of functions. What feedback from the universe of intelligent automata (in the automobile, for instance) can already be analyzed? What communication process is used in this type of human/machine interaction? Within the question of the acceptability of this technical system, what is the status of the transfer of decision-making to a group of automatic micro-commands?&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L8xH11_puce-68c92.gif&quot; width='8' height='11' alt=&quot;-&quot; style='height:11px;width:8px;' class='' /&gt; Invisibility, automation and mechanical decision-making within a complex system made up of billions of exchanges raise questions whilst the issues of consent and responsibility have yet to be resolved in the elementary interaction of web services. What status should be given to the identified traces? What should be the normalized consent protocols? Under which safeguards ?&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.voxinternet.fr/local/cache-vignettes/L8xH11_puce-68c92.gif&quot; width='8' height='11' alt=&quot;-&quot; style='height:11px;width:8px;' class='' /&gt; The banalization of identification, in a context where subject and object become muddled, casts doubt on the notion of communication control as it has been divided into private and public space. But will the identification of objects and subjects at home, at the office, in the street or in the world be a unified or plural process? The uncertainty of the future management of IPv6 and the generalization of the rationale of identity management open new policy, economics and ethics questions.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p class=&quot;spip&quot;&gt;The Internet has forced us to rethink the architectural, social and political paradigm of information systems. With the emergence of the network of communicating objects, are we facing a rupture in the paradigm or an acceleration of the trends already observed on the Internet?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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